Botta 
Public  Instruction  in  Sardinia 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


[Public  Instruction  in  Sardinia, 


AN    ACCOUNT 


SYSTEM  OF  EDUCATION, 


AXD    OF    THE 


INSTITUTIONS  OF  SCIENCE  AND  ART, 


KINGDOM    OF    SARDINIA. 


BY  YIXCEXZO  BOTTA. 


PROFESSOR   OF   ITALIAN   LITERATURE    IN   THE    UNIVERSITY    OF   X.  T. 


[From  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education.]  . 


F.    C.    BROWNE  LL:    HARTFORD 

1858. 


Public  Instruction  in  Sardinia. 


AN    ACCOUNT 


SYSTEM  OF  EDUCATION, 


AND    OF    THE 


INSTITUTIONS  OF  SCIENCE  AND  ART, 


KINGDOM   OF    SARDINIA. 


BY  VINCENZO  BOTTA. 


PROFESSOR   OP  ITALIAN   LITERATURE   IN  THE   UNIVERSITY   OF  N.  T. 


[Prom  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education.] 


F.    C.    BROWNELL:   HARTFORD 

1858. 


Cage 

LA 

113 


The  following  article  on  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA 
was  prepared  by  Prof.  Botta,  for  publication  in  the  American 
Journal  of  Education,  at  the  request  of  the  Editor,  and  appeared 
in  the  numbers  for  June,  September  and  December,  1857. 

The  writer  was  formerly  a  member  of  the  Parliament  of  Sar- 
dinia, and  was  long  connected  with  the  department  of  Public  In- 
struction, as  professor  of  Philosophy  in  the  colleges  of  that  country. 
In  connection  with  another  member  of  the  House  of  Deputies,  (Dr. 
Luigi  Parola,)  he  published  in  1851,  in  Turin,  an  elaborate  trea- 
tise of  1020  pages,  on  "  Public  Education  in  Germany  "  which  is 
regarded  as  one  of  the  best  works  on  that  subject  The  following 
account  will  be  read  with  interest,  by  all  those  engaged  in  educa- 
tional pursuits,  as  well  as  by  those,  who  consider  Sardinia  as  the 
representative  of  the  national  rights  and  interests  of  Italy. 

H.  B. 

HARTFORD,  CONN.,  December  10,  1857. 


CONTENTS, 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.    .......      9 

I.    PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION,          ........  9 

Infant  Asylums,          .........      9 

Common  or  Elementary  Schools,  ...  .  .  10 

Inferior,     ..........    10 

Superior,          .......  .11 

Adult,        .......  .    12 

Normal  Schools  for  training  teachers,        ....  .13 

Government,    ..........    13 

II.    SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION,       .  ...         14 

Classical  Schools,         .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .15 

Public  Latin  Schools,  .  ...          15 

Royal  Colleges,      ...  .  .15 

National  colleges,       .  .  .  15 

Programme  of  studies,     .  .  ...    16 

Method,  .....  ...         17 

Discipline,  .  .  .  .24 

Statistics,         ...  .  .25 

Direction  and  Supervision,          .  .....    26 

Technical  and  Special  Schools,     .....  .26 

Special  courses  in  National  Colleges,     .  .  .    26 

Royal  Technical  Institute  at  Turin,  .  27 

Other  Special  Schools  at  Turin,       .  .  27 

Other  Special  Schools  at  Genoa.  .  .  .  .  .  .27 

Other  Special  Schools  at  Chambery  eu,       .....         27 

Ecclesiastical  Seminaries,  ...  .  .    28 

Provident  and  Reformatory  Institutions,     .....          29 

Examination  for  University,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .30 

Authors  used  in  secondary  schools,        ......          31 

III.  SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION,    .........    32 

Universities,  .........          32 

University  of  Turin,  .........    32 

Faculties  or  Departments.    1.  Theology.    2.  Jurisprudence.    3.  Medicine 
and  Surgery.    Hospitals.  Asylums,  and  Dispensaries.    4.   Belles-Lettres 
and  Philosophy.    5.  Physical   Sciences  and  Mathematics.     Engineers. 
Architects,  Surveyors.  $"e.,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .  33-45 

Royal  College  of  the  Provinces,  .  .  .  .  .  .46 

Statistics,         .........         46 

Institutions  associated  \rith  the  University  of  Turin.  .  .  .47 

1.  Public  Libray.  2.  Anatomical  Theatre.  3.  Pathological  Museum. 
4.  Chemical  Laboratories  and  Ampitheatre.  5.  Botanic  Garden.  6.  Cab- 
inet of  Physical  Apparatus.  7.  Astronomical  Observatory.  8.  Hydrau- 
lic Building.  9.  Zoological  Museum.  10.  Mineralogical  Museum.  11. 
Museum  of  Antiquities.  12.  Egyptian  Museum.  •  .  .  .  47-50 

IV.  GENERAL  DIRECTION  AND  SUPERVISION  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,       .  .          .50 
V.    BUDGET  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION,     .  .         53 

i 


v  CONTENTS. 

VI.  INSTITUTIONS  TO  PROMOTE  SCIENCE  AMD  AETS,  .  .  .  .  .53 

Royal  Academy  of  Sciences.  Royal  Military  Academy.  First  General 
Corps  of  the  Army.  School  of  Artillery.  Royal  Armory.  Royal  Library. 
Archives  of  State.  Royal  Academy  of  Medicine  and  Surgery.  Royal 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  Philharmonic  Academy  of  Turin.  Philodra- 
matic  Academy.  Caccia's  College.  Royal  Committees  for  the  progress  of 
Sciences,  Letters,  and  Arts.  Royal  Academy  of  Agriculture.  The  Agri- 
cultural Association.  Chamber  of  Agriculture  and  Commerce.  .  53-61 

VII.  THE  PBBSS,          ••-....  .61 
VIU.    EDUCATIONAL  PRESS,  AND  SCHOLASTIC  BOOKS,    ...  61 
IX.    ANTOSIO  ROSMINI  AS  A  PHILOSOPHER  AND  EDUCATOR,           .          .          .          .55 

X.      AN  ACT  ORGANIZING  THE  ADMINISTRATION  OP  PUBIC  INSTRUCTION,  PASSED    FEBRU- 
ARY, 1857,         ••-.....  .59 

Remarks  on  the  law  of  1857,    .  ... 


' 


EDUCATION 

IN   THE 

KINGDOM  OF  SARDINIA. 


THE  system  of  public  instruction  in  Sardinia  embraces  three  degrees 
or  departments,  viz. :  I.  Primary  Instruction.  II.  Secondary  Instruc- 
tion. III.  Superior  Instruction. 

I.    PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION. 

The  department  of  primary  instruction  includes  the  infant  asylums  and 
the  common  schools,  both  inferior  and  superior,  for  boys  and  girls. 

INFANT  ASYLUMS. — The  first  infant  asylum  in  Sardinia  was  founded  in 
Turin  in  1825,  by  private  benevolence.  Since  1841,  these  institutions 
have  rapidly  increased  under  the  direction  of  private  individuals  and 
associations,  and  they  now  number  eighty,  and  contain  about  ten  thou- 
sand children  of  both  sexes,  who  are  gratuitously  admitted,  instructed 
and  fed ;  they  are  brought  to  the  school  early  in  the  morning,  and  taken 
home  late  in  the  evening.  They  are  admitted  at  the  age  of  two  years, 
and  can  remain  in  the  asylum  until  they  reach  the  age  of  six  or  seven. 

The  programme  of  instruction  consists  of  three  parts,  corresponding  to 
the  three  classes  into  which  the  pupils  are  divided.  In  the  first  class 
they  are  taught  to  pronounce  their  own  names,  to  recite  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  the  Ave  Maria,  and  the  first  part  of  the  catechism.  They  are 
also  taught  numeration,  with  the  simplest  problems  of  mental  arithme- 
tic, with  mechanical  illustrations ;  the  first  nine  numeral  figures,  the 
names  of  portions  of  the  human  body  and  of  other  objects  adapted  to 
their  comprehension.  They  read  the  vowels  and  the  simplest  syllabic 
combinations.  In  the  second  class  the  teaching  of  prayers  and  of  the 
catechism  is  continued,  with  sacred  narratives ;  more  advanced  exercises 
in  arithmetic,  written  and  mental,  are  given,  syllables  are  continued,  en- 
tire words  read,  and  names  of  various  productions  of  nature  and  art  are 
learned.  In  the  third  class  the  studies  of  the  preceding  classes  are  con- 
tinued and  amplified,  with  the  addition  of  sacred  history,  rudiments  of 
fractions,  the  tables  of  weights  and  measures,  reading  and  composition  of 
phrases,  singing,  and  gymnastic  exercises. 

The  infant  asylums  are  sustained  entirely  by  private  subscriptions,  by 
subsidies  from  the  municipalities,  or  by  donations  from  other  charitable 
institutions.  The  government  has  the  right  of  inspection  and  some  de- 
gree of  direction.  The  teachers,  who  for  the  most  part  are  women,  are 
required  to  have  the  certificate  of  capacity  from  the  appointed  authorities. 


^     *  Prof.  Botta  is  the  author,  in  connection  with  Dr.  Parola,  of  an  elaborate  treatise  on  Public 
Instruction  in  Germany,— "  Del  Publicc  Insegnamento  in  Germania.    Turin,  1851.    1022  pp 


V 


10  PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

COMMON  SCHOOLS. — In  1 772,  a  decree  was  published  establishing  pri- 
mary schools,  but  with  the  sole  object  of  preparing  boys  for  the  Latin 
schools,  and  they  were  strictly  confined  to  the  study  of  the  first  elements 
of  the  Italian  language.  The  occupation  of  Sardinia  by  the  republican 
government  of  France,  at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  gave  a  decided 
impulse  to  popular  instruction.  Every  township  was  compelled  to  estab- 
lish a  common  school  for  boys,  in  order  to  give  to  them  instruction  in 
reading,  writing,  and  in  the  first  elements  of  Italian,  Latin,  and  French 
grammar.  But  on  the  restoration  of  the  former  government  in  1814,  all 
the  laws  and  provisions  which  had  been  made  were  abolished,  and  pub- 
lic education  was  again  entirely  neglected,  and  regarded  as  revolutionary 
and  dangerous.  After  the  revolution  of  1821,  an  attempt  was  made  to 
reestablish  the  public  schools,  and  a  decree  was  issued  by  which  all  the 
chief  boroughs,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  all  the  townships  were  obliged  to 
support  free  schools  for  teaching  children  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
Christian  doctrine,  and  the  elements  of  the  Italian  language ;  but  owing 
to  the  suspicions  of  the  government  and  to  the  inability  of  its  officers, 
this  decree  was  neutralized,  and  little  progress  was  made. 

Meanwhile  in  all  the  countries  of  Europe  pedagogical  questions  had 
assumed  a  new  importance,  and  were  treated  in  their  social  and  political 
aspects  by  men  of  the  highest  ability.  In  Sardinia  the  opposition  of  the 
Jesuits  to  the  infant  asylums  and  popular  schools  had  united  all  the  lib- 
erals, who  considered  the  education  of  the  people  as  the  first  step  toward 
independence,  and  who  labored  for  it  with  all  the  enthusiasm  that  love 
of  country  and  love  of  freedom  could  inspire.  Under  their  combined 
influence,  the  government  was  obliged  to  make  many  provisions  for  the 
improvement  and  the  extension  of  popular  schools,  and  in  1844,  estab- 
lished at  Turin  the  first  normal  school  for  the  education  of  teachers, 
which  was  soon  followed  by  others  in  different  cities. 

The  constitution  granted  in  1848  to  the  Sardinian  states  by  Charles 
Albert,  began  a  new  era  in  the  progress  of  the  country,  and  securing  po- 
litical freedom,  produced  a  happy  necessity  of  a  new  and  better  system 
of  public  education.  It  prepared  the  way  for  the  law  published  in  the 
same  year,  which  again  provided  for  a  free  school  in  every  township,  and 
furnished  a  new  programme  and  better  methods  for  popular  instruction. 

According  to  this  organization  the  common  schools  are  divided  into 
the  inferior  and  superior.  Each  township  is  obliged  to  establish  and  sup- 
port at  least  one  inferior  school;  and  none  can  establish  a  Latin  school 
if  it  has  not  provided  for  a  superior  common  school. 

THE  INFERIOR  COMMON  SCHOOLS  are  divided  into  two  classes,  each  of 
which  has  a  course  of  one  year.  In  the  first  year  the  children  are 
taught  spelling,  reading,  exercises  of  nomenclature  from  the  first  read- 
ing book,  vowels  and  syllables  first  copied  from  the  slate,  and  after- 
ward written  from  dictation ;  numeration  and  calculation  on  the  nu- 
meral frame,  figures  as  high  as  one  hundred ;  geometrical  definitions 
and  the  drawing  of  right  and  curved  lines,  circles,  and  polygons,  the 
first  part  of  the  catechism,  and  narratives  from  sacred  history.  In 
the  second  year  the  pupils  receive  instruction  in  the  Italian  language,  the 


PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  H 

first  parts  of  speech  and  the  conjugation  of  the  verbs ;  they  pass  to  the  sec- 
ond reading  book,  into  exercises  in  Italian,  and  go  through  the  simplest 
rules  of  arithmetic  with  numbers  as  high  as  ten  thousand.  They  con- 
tinue the  study  and  drawing  of  geometrical  figures,  plain  and  solid,  the 
measure  of  squares  and  rectangles,  parallelograms  and  triangles ;  exer- 
cises in  the  catechism  and  sacred  history. 

The  Sardinian  states  contain  a  population  of  about  five  millions.  The 
Continental  Kingdom  is  divided  into  39  provinces,  which  are  subdivided 
into  2720  townships.  In  these  in  1848,  there  were  3829  inferior  public 
schools;  and  in  1856,  5622.  The  island  of  Sardinia  has  a  population  of 
448,112,  with  only  6325  pupils  in  the  elementary  schools. 

The  number  of  private  inferior  schools  is  four  hundred  and  ninety  ;  the 
cost  of  the  public  inferior  schools  exceeds  two  millions  of  francs,  of 
which  one  million  and  a  half  is  given  by  the  townships  for  the  sup- 
port of  their  own  schools,  and  the  remainder  by  private  donations  or 
charitable  institutions.  The  government  gives  about  125  thousand 
francs,  to  be  divided  among  the  poorer  townships.  The  townships  are 
obliged  to  tax  themselves  for  the  support  of  their  schools,  and  if  they 
fail  in  this,  the  government  itself  imposes  upon  them  the  necessary  tax. 

The  teachers  of  these  schools  number  about  six  thousand.  They  are 
appointed  by  the  municipalities  subject  to  the  approbation  of  the  scholas- 
tic authorities ;  from  which  they  must  receive  the  certificate  of  capacity. 
Their  salaries  are  different  according  to  the  different  townships  in  which 
they  are  appointed. 

THE  PRIMARY  SUPERIOR  SCHOOLS  complete  the  system  of  popular 
instruction.  They  are  divided  also  into  two  courses  of  one  year  each,  so  that 
a  complete  course  occupies  four  years.  These  schools  have  all  been  or- 
ganized since  1848.  Though  there  is  no  obligation  upon  the  townships 
to  establish  the  superior  schools,  yet  in  1856,  we  find  239  of  these  insti- 
tutions sustained  entirely  by  them. 

In  the  first  year  of  the  superior  school  the  pupils  are  instructed  in  the 
third  part  of  the  catechism,  the  continuation  of  sacred  history,  the  analy- 
sis of  propositions,  definitions  of  analyzed  objects,  short  compositions 
of  narratives  and  letters,  exercises  in  caligraphy,  measures  of  cubes, 
parallelepipeds,  prisms,  and  pyramids,  the  drawing  of  circles  and  of 
curves  used  in  drawing  solids,  and  the  study  of  the  map  of  the  world ; 
the  division  of  the  earth,  a  general  knowledge  of  Europe,  a  particular 
knowledge  of  Italy,  especially  of  Sardinia ;  calculation  of  decimal  frac- 
tions, and  the  legal  system  of  weights  and  measures.  In  the  second 
year  the  instruction  in  the  catechism  is  concluded ;  sacred  history  con- 
tinued with  the  history  of  the  church,  syntax  of  phrases  and  periods, 
and  grammatical  rules  applied  to  the  works  of  some  of  the  Italian  class- 
ical writers,  narratives  from  the  history  of  Italy ;  the  measure  of  spheres, 
cones  and  cylinders,  the  principal  figures  of  geometry ;  the  particular 
geography  of  Europe,  the  elements  of  physical  science  applied  to  the 
luses  of  life,  to  agriculture  and  industry,  and  to  the  explanation  of  the 
principal  phenomena  of  nature. 

INFERIOR  AND  SUPERIOR  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS  FOR  GIRLS. — Under  the  ab- 


j-j  PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

solute  government  the  education  of  women  was  not  only  entirely  neglect- 
ed, but  considered  superfluous  and  even  dangerous.  Before  1848,  there 
were  no  institutions  of  learning  for  the  daughters  of  the  people,  and 
those  of  the  aristocracy  received  in  the  nunneries  only  a  limited  degree 
of  instruction,  pernicious  in  its  effects  and  immoral  in  many  of  its  re 
suits.  After  that  time,  the  schools  for  the  education  of  girls  rapidly  mul- 
tiplied, and  in  1856  the  number  of  inferior  schools  exceeded  2792,  and 
the  superior  65.  Besides  these,  there  were  many  private  schools  estab- 
lished to  counteract  the  influence  of  the  nunneries.  Since  1848,  all  the 
schools  and  the  nunneries  regarded  as  schools,  have  been  submitted  to 
the  control  of  the  government,  and  the  teachers  obliged  to  pass  an  exami- 
nation from  its  officers  and  to  obtain  their  certificate. 

In  the  inferior  schools  for  girls  they  are  taught  reading,  writing,  the  ele- 
ments of  arithmetic  and  of  the  Italian  language,  and  the  catechism.  In  the 
superior,  writing,  grammar,  domestic  book-keeping,  composition,  geog- 
raphy, ancient  and  modern  history,  and  Christian  doctrine. 

The  teachers  are  divided  into  three  classes : — instructresses,  teachers 
properly  so  called,  and  assistants.  The  two  former  are  obliged  to  pass 
an  examination  before  a  committee  appointed  by  the  government.  Since 
1850,  many  municipalities  and  private  associations  have  founded  normal 
schools  for  the  preparation  of  able  teachers  of  the  schools  for  girls. 
Custom,  if  not  law,  prescribes  men  for  instructors  of  boys,  and  women 
for  girls ;  the  only  exception  to  this  rule  is  in  the  infant  asylums. 

There  are  &lso  popular  schools  for  adults  supported  by  the  municipal- 
ities or  by  private  philanthropy.  They  are  open  for  the  day,  the  eve- 
ning, or  on  Sunday,  and  are  either  elementary  or  superior.  In  the  first 
they  are  taught  reading,  writing,  Italian,  arithmetic,  and  the  system  of 
weights  and  measures.  We  find  these  elementary  schools  in  almost  all 
the  townships  of  the  average  population.  The  superior  schools  of  this 
class  are  found  in  the  larger  towns  and  cities,  and  their  course  of  instruc- 
tion includes  Italian  grammar,  constitutional  rights  and  duties,  civil  laws 
most  in  practical  use,  geography  and  history,  domestic  and  rural  econ- 
omy, public  and  private  hygiene,  arithmetic  applied  to  industry  and 
commerce,  book-keeping,  the  principles  of  geometry  applied  to  agri- 
culture, arts  and  trades,  linear  drawing,  and  the  elements  of  natural 
sciences. 

In  regard  to  the  method  of  teaching  in  the  primary  schools,  the  teach- 
ers are  desired  to  follow  the  laws  of  the  development  of  the  human  mind. 
In  the  best  schools  the  method  of  Pestalozzi  is  adopted,  which  rests  on 
the  following  basis : — 1st.  Religion,  the  universal  principle,  and  common 
to  all  the  branches  of  education.  2d.  Morals  and  logic,  the  prominent 
principle  of  method.  3d.  Education  of  man  considered  in  his  totality, 
and  harmonious  nature.  4th.  Full  development  of  the  faculties,  peculiar 
dispositions  and  individualities  of  each  pupil.  5th.  Union  and  order  of 
the  faculties  and  of  the  different  departments  of  learning.  6th.  Method 
of  education  entirely  positive.  7th.  Intuition,  principal  basis  and  meansr 
of  instruction.  8th.  Gradation  of  all  the  branches  of  education.  9th/ 


PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  13 

Union  of  the  elements  of  both  domestic  and  public  education.  10th. 
Human  life  considered  as  essential  and  universal  means  of  education.  It 
is  also  recommended  to  the  teachers  to  lead  their  pupils  to  self-instruc- 
tion, to  avoid  every  thing  which  can  overcharge  and  confuse  their  mem- 
ory, and  to  aid  them  in  the  gradual  development  of  their  faculties.  Inter- 
nal perception  and  observation  ought  to  precede  the  analysis  of  the  objects 
which  are  to  be  taught ;  reading  and  writing  ought  to  be  considered  as 
means,  not  as  an  object  of  instruction ;  language  as  expression  of  human 
thought,  and  arithmetic  as  expression  of  human  reasoning ;  the  passage 
from  the  simplest  and  easiest  ideas  to  more  complex  and  difficult  ones  is 
considered  as  the  fundamental  principle  of  pedagogy. 

NORMAL  SCHOOLS. — These  are  called  schools  of  method,  as  their  object 
is  to  teach  the  method  of  instruction.  The  first  school  of  this  class  was 
founded  in  1844,  for  those  who  were  afterward  to  become  professors  of 
method  and  to  preside  over  schools  for  teachers.  This  school  belongs  to  the 
university  of  Turin,  and  we  shall  speak  of  it  elsewhere.  In  1845  special 
schools  for  teachers  were  established  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  king- 
dom, and  their  course  is  limited  to  the  three  months  of  autumnal  vaca- 
tions. They  are  inferior  and  superior  as  they  give  instruction  to  the 
teachers  of  these  different  classes.  In  the  inferior  schools  of  method 
there  are  three  courses  given  by  a  professor  and  by  two  assistants ;  the 
former  teaches  method,  the  latter  the  objects  of  primary  instruction.  The 
teachers  who  have  not  yet  obtained  the  certificate  of  capacity  are  obliged 
to  attend  these  schools,  and  after  their  course  to  pass  an  examination. — 
The  superior  schools  were  first  opened  in  1850 ;  they  last  four  months 
and  give  an  instruction  appropriate  to  their  object.  Since  1845  about  150 
of  these  temporary  schools  have  been  opened.  The  professors  are  appointed 
by  the  government,  under  whose  direction  and  control  these  schools  are. 
They  are  supported  however  by  the  provinces  and  townships,  the  local 
authorities  of  which  have  desired  their  establishment  in  the  districts. 

We  find  also  in  many  cities  schools  of  method  for  instruction  of  the 
teachers  of  girls ;  they  are  entirely  supported  by  the  municipal  authorities. 
Their  programme  is  different  in  different  cities,  extending  in  some  only 
through  three  or  four  months,  in  others  during  the  year,  and  one  in 
Turin  has  a  course  of  three  years. 

The  cost  of  all  the  primary  instruction,  inferior  and  superior,  including 
the  schools  of  method,  was  in  the  year  1856,  of  3,557,212  francs.  The 
whole  number  of  pupils  in  the  winter  of  the  same  year  was  343,227  or 
233,540  boys  and  139,687  girls;  and  in  the  summer  120,520  boys,  and 
79,025  girls. 

GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. — All  the  schools  which  we 
have  now  described  are  directed,  under  the  authority  of  the  minister  of 
public  instruction,  by  a  general  Board  of  elementary  education,  by  pro- 
vincial Boards,  inspectors  and  local  superintendents.  The  general  Board 
is  presided  over  by  the  general  inspector  of  the  normal  schools  and  of  the 
primary  instruction,  and  is  composed  of  the  following  members,  taken  from 
j  the  university  of  Turin.  1.  Professor  of  method.  2.  Professor  of 


.^  PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA 

philosophy.  3.  Professor  of  belles-lettres.  4.  Professor  of  mathematics. 
5.  Professor  of  natural  sciences.  6.  Professor  of  religion,  in  the  national 
college  of  the  same  city.  To  this  Board  belongs  the  general  direction  of 
all  the  primary  and  normal  schools  of  the  kingdom,  and  under  their  au- 
thority, provincial  boards  are  instituted  in  all  the  provinces.  These  are 
composed  of  the  royal  superintendent  of  the  province,  of  the  superin- 
tendent of  education  in  the  province,  of  the  provincial  inspector  of  the  pri- 
mary instruction,  of  two  professors  of  the  college  of  the  city,  of  a  normal 
teacher,  and  of  two  members  of  the  provincial  council.  These  provincial 
boards,  the  inspectors,  and  the  local  superintendents,  who  reside  in  all  the 
central  townships,  form  the  connecting  link  between  the  schools  of  the 
townships,  the  provinces,  and  the  central  authority. 

No  one  can  teach  in  the  primary  schools,  either  public  or  private, 
without  a  certificate  of  competency  from  the  government,  given  on  the 
authority  of  a  special  committee  appointed  to  examine  the  students  of 
the  normal  schools.  The  government  upon  the  nomination  of  the  gene- 
ral board  appoints  the  provincial  inspectors,  whose  salary  however  is  paid 
by  the  provinces.  The  municipalities  nominate  the  teachers  of  their  schools 
from  among  those  who  received  the  certificate  of  capacity  ;  but  the  ap- 
pointment to  be  valid  must  be  confirmed  by  the  provincial  board. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into  any  criticism  of  the  primary  and  normal 
schools  of  Sardinia;  the  system  introduced  in  1848  must  be  considered 
as  a  decided  improvement  upon  the  former  institutions,  and  the  country 
during  the  short  period  since  its  establishment  has  been  greatly  benefit- 
ed. Yet  experience  has  proved  the  system  defective  in  some  points,  and 
the  liberal  party  of  the  country  is  earnestly  engaged  in  preparing  new 
reforms,  which  are  required  by  the  conditions  of  the  people.  Among 
these  reforms  it  is  proposed : 

1st.  To  reduce  the  administration  to  a  more  simple  system;  and  the 
Parliament  had  recently  under  consideration  a  new  bill  to  this  effect* 
2d.  To  enforce  the  obligation  of  parents  to  send  their  children  to  school — 
as  in  the  present  system  there  is  great  negligence  in  this  respect,  and  it  is 
considered  as  a  necessary  step  for  securing  the  free  institutions  of  the 
country,  to  provide  by  legal  force  for  the  education  of  the  people.  3d.  To 
establish  better  normal  schools,  with  a  course  of  two  years  for  the  teach- 
ers of  the  inferior  school,  and  of  three  years  for  the  teachers  of  the  supe- 
rior school.  4th.  To  declare  teachers  functionaries  of  the  state,  and  after 
having  taught  for  thirty  years  to  be  provided  with  a  competent  pension 
for  the  remainder  of  their  lives.  5th.  To  increase  the  salaries  of  the 
teachers,  so  as  to  enable  them  to  devote  themselves  entirely  to  their  pro- 
fession. Gth.  To  oblige  the  townships  to  establish  not  only  inferior, 
but  superior  schools  both  for  boys  and  girls ;  besides  Sunday  and  evening 
schools  for  the  adults. 

II.     SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION. 

The   secondary  schools  are   divided   into   the  classical    and   techni- 

*  See  page  69,  for  recent  revision  of  School  System. 


SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  15 

cal.  In  the  former  the  students  are  taught  the  ancient  and  modern 
languages  and  literatures,  and  the  elements  of  philosophy  and  science, 
as  a  preparation  for  the  studies  of  the  university.  In  the  latter  the 
elementary  course  of  instruction  is  continued,  and  the  students  prepared 
for  the  exercise  of  the  different  professions,  for  which  the  university 
makes  no  special  provision. 

SECONDAKY  CLASSICAL  SCHOOLS. — To  this  department  of  instruction  be- 
long,— 1st,  The  Public  Latin  Schools.  2d,  The  Royal  Colleges.  3d, 
The  National  Colleges. 

PUBLIC  LATIN  SCHOOLS — are  those  in  which,  without  being  supported 
by  the  government,  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  Latin  course  is  given  with 
the  course  of  philosophy  and  science.  They  are  also  called  municipal 
colleges,  and  are  complete  when  their  programme  embraces  besides  the 
four  classes  of  the  primary  school,  three  courses  of  Latin  grammar,  two  of 
rhetoric,  and  two  of  philosophy.  They  are  incomplete,  if  the  courses  of 
rhetoric,  or  even  of  philosophy  are  omitted.  The  municipal  colleges,  either 
complete  or  incomplete,  are  supported  by  the  municipalities,  but  the 
professors  and  teachers  are  appointed  by  the  government,  which  directs 
their  instruction,  inspects  their  schools,  prescribes  their  programmes  and 
text-books,  and  has  the  general  control  of  them.  These  and  especially 
the  incomplete  schools  under  the  absolute  government  were  multiplied  in 
every  township,  and  for  a  long  time  took  the  place  of  popular  schools. 
They  have  always  been  of  a  very  low  standard  and  sustained  only  to 
keep  alive  the  prejudices  of  the  peasants,  who  believed  that  a  knowledge 
of  Latin  was  the  highest  attainment  of  wisdom,  and  by  the  interest  of  the 
clergy,  who  found  in  these  schools  the  pupils  for  their  seminaries.  In 
1850,  there  were  yet  118  inferior  Latin  schools,  of  which  only  14  gave  a 
full  course  of  grammar.  There  were  besides  47  incomplete  colleges,  in 
which  two  courses  of  rhetoric  were  given,  and  in  a  few  of  them  a  partial 
course  of  philosophy.  Since  that  time  a  great  number  of  these  incom- 
plete schools  were  abolished,  and  primary  superior  schools  substituted 
for  them. 

ROYAL  COLLEGES. — In  every  principal  city  there  is  a  royal  college,  sup- 
ported by  the  government,  with  the  exception  of  the  Latin  inferior  classes, 
in  which  the  salaries  of  the  teachers  are  paid  by  the  municipality.  The 
constitution  of  1848  found  six  of  these  royal  colleges  in  the  hands  of  the 
Jesuits,  viz.:  one  of  the  colleges  of  Turin,  one  of  Genoa,  the  colleges  of 
Nice,  of  Novara,  of  Voghera,  of  Chambery.  In  that  year  the  Jesuits 
having  been  expelled  from  the  country,  the  government  organized  those 
colleges  according  to  a  new  system,  upon  which  afterward  all  the  royal 
colleges  were  organized,  and  called  them  national. 

NATIONAL  COLLEGES. — The  improvements  introduced  by  these  institu- 
tions are  felt  in  all  branches  of  public  instruction.  They  have  pro- 
longed the  course  of  primary  schools  from  two  to  four  years,  introduced 
into  the  system  the  superior  course  and  improved  the  inferior.  They 
have  also  improved  the  programme  and  the  method  of  classical  instruc- 
tion, simplified  the  philosophical  and  scientific  course,  and  organized  a 


jg  SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

new  system  of  examination.  While  in  the  former  colleges  the  instruc- 
tion was  given  by  eight  or  nine  teachers,  in  the  new  ones  the  programme 
is  carried  out  by  fifteen  or  twenty  professors,  whose  condition  was  bet- 
tered by  the  new  organization. 

The  course  of  Latin  Grammar  is  of  three  years,  and  it  is  divided  into 
three  parts,  over  each  of  which  presides  a  professor.  No  one  can  enter 
into  the  first  part  of  the  course  without  having  passed  an  examination  on 
the  subjects  of  the  highest  primary  course.  The  promotion  from  a  part 
of  one  course  to  another  depends  always  on  the  result  of  the  examination. 
The  following  is  the  programme  of  the  grammatical  course : — 

First  year. — Continuation  of  the  Italian  grammar,  the  first  elements 
of  the  Latin  grammar.  Sacred  history  and  arithmetic. 

Second  year. — Italian  grammar,  grammatical  rules  applied  to  the  ex- 
planation of  some  selected  pieces  of  classic  writers  from  the  reader.  Ele- 
ments of  Latin  grammar  continued.  Sacred  history  and  arithmetic. 

Third  year. — Italian  grammar ;  analysis  of  the  thoughts  of  the  classics. 
Latin  grammar.  Prosody. — Its  application  to  the  reading  of  classic  writers. 
Eeligion.  Arithmetic.  Eoman  and  Greek  history,  and  ancient  geography. 

Course  of  Rhetoric  with  two  professors.  First  year. — Composition, 
explanation  of  the  text-book  of  rhetoric,  Greek  grammar,  religion, 
history,  mathematics.  Second  year. — Different  kinds  of  composition, 
both  in  prose  and  poetry,  explanation  of  the  text-book  of  rhetoric  in 
connection  with  the  compositions  which  are  under  examination.  Greek 
grammar. — Its  rules  applied  to  the  explanation  of  some  selected  pieces  from 
the  reader.  Religion,  history,  mathematics,  French  language.  Besides 
their  own  professors,  the  courses  of  grammar  and  rhetorics  have  four 
professors  in  common  for  the  instruction  of  religion,  history,  and  geog- 
raphy, mathematics,  and  modern  languages. 

Course  of  Philosophy  with  two  professors.  First  year. — Logic  and 
metaphysics,  algebra,  plane  and  solid  geometry,  religion,  Italian  and  Latin 
literature.  Second  year. — Moral  philosophy  with  the  exposition  of  con- 
stitutional duties  and  rights,  physical  science,  religion  and  natural  his- 
tory ;  viz.:  the  elements  of  mineralogy,  zoology,  botany  and  geology. 
This  course  has  in  common  with  the  preceding,  the  professor  of  re- 
ligion, and  besides  the  two  professors  of  philosophy,  has  a  professor  of 
natural  history.  The  lectures  on  Italian  and  Latin  literature  prescribed 
for  the  first  year  of  this  course  are  delivered  by  one  of  the  professors  of 
rhetoric.  No  student  is  admitted  to  the  course  of  philosophy  before  the 
age  of  fourteen  years. 

After  having  pursued  all  the  collegiate  courses  and  passed  successfully 
the  examination  of  the  second  year  of  the  course  of  philosophy,  the  stu- 
dents are  allowed  to  present  themselves  for  examination  preparatory  to 
their  admission  to  the  university.  This  examination  is  conducted  by  va- 
rious committees,  composed  of  professors  from  the  university  itself,  and 
is  scientific  and  literary.  The  first  scientific  examination  consists  of  oral 
questions  on  logic,  metaphysics,  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry  ;  the  _  .^ 
second  of  questions  on  moral  philosophy  and  physical  science.  Thej 


SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  j^ 

literary  examination  is  both  written  and  oral.  The  written  embraces  a 
Latin  and  Italian  composition.  The  oral  runs  through  the  examination  of 
the  written  compositions,  and  of  the  questions  suggested  by  them.  It  con- 
sists besides  of  interpretation  of  the  Latin  and  Italian  classics,  according 
to  the  programme,  and  of  questions  drawn  from  ancient  and  modern  his- 
tory. The  questions  of  history,  logic,  metaphysics,  arithmetic,  algebra, 
geometry,  moral  philosophy  and  physical  science,  to  which  the  candidate 
is  requested  to  answer,  are  drawn  from  the  programmes,  which  are  pre- 
scribed by  the  government  as  guides  for  the  lectures,  to  be  delivered  by 
the  professors  on  the  said  subjects.  The  committee  which  is  to  preside 
over  the  examination  of  each  student  is  also  drawn  by  lot. 

An  entire  liberty  is  left  to  the  professors  in  selecting  the  methods  of 
their  teaching.  Yet  the  greatest  care  is  recommended  in  order  to  regu- 
late the  secondary  instruction  according  to  the  laws  of  a  rational  method- 
ology. The  instruction  of  languages  and  especially  of  Latin  is  considered 
as  a  most  essential  means  of  mental  training.  It  is  not  the  language  in 
itself  which  is  considered  of  so  great  importance,  but  it  is  its  eminently 
logical  construction,  which  renders  the  Latin  the  most  powerful  instru- 
ment of  general  education.  The  study  of  this  language  must  be  directed 
in  such  a  way  as  to  make  of  it  the  expression  of  the  genius  and  develop- 
ment of  human  thought.  The  analysis  of  the  classic  writers  must  give 
the  interpretation  of  the  great  ideas  of  the  Roman  ages ;  the  explanation 
of  the  orators  and  poets  must  present  the  living  image  of  the  works  of 
art,  of  war,  of  politics  of  the  entire  world,  which  has  been  under  the  do- 
minion of  Rome.  This  instruction  is  given  in  three  degrees  through  the 
courses  of  grammar  and  of  rhetoric,  from  etymology  and  syntax  to  the 
rules  of  different  kinds  of  style.  The  former  parts  are  taught  in  the 
course  of  grammar,  the  latter  in  the  course  of  rhetoric,  so  that  the  great 
rule  of  method  is  observed  through  all  that  instruction,  viz.:  the  passage 
from  the  known  to  the  unknown,  from  the  easy  to  the  difficult,  from  the 
simple  to  the  compound.  The  teachers  are  accustomed  to  unite  the  com- 
position of  easy  and  short  sentences  to  the  study  of  words  in  order  to  ren- 
der more  intellectual  the  etymological  exercises.  As  soon  as  the  pupils 
begin  to  learn  how  to  compose  those  sentences,  they  are  taught  to  trans- 
late from  the  Latin  into  Italian,  and  from  Italian  into  Latin  ;  in  which  ex- 
ercises the  teachers  are  requested  to  take  particular  care  in  showing  to 
their  classes  the  analogy  of  the  two  languages.  Learning  the  etymology 
and  syntax  in  the  two  first  years  of  the  grammatical  course  especially 
by  practice  and  experience,  in  the  third  year  the  students  are  taught  the 
science  of  those  parts  of  the  grammar,  and  learn  how  to  apply  the  gram- 
matical principles  to  the  explanation  and  translation  of  the  easiest  Latin 
writers,  like  C.  Nepos,  Phajdrus,  the  letters  of  Caesar,  Cicero,  &c.  Before 
leaving  the  course  of  grammar  they  begin  to  translate  Ovid,  and  to  study 
the  first  elements  of  poetry. 

In  the  course  of  rhetoric  the  instruction  of  Latin  becomes  more  scienti- 

Jic,  or  rather  is  transformed  into  a  study  of  philology  and  rhetoric. 

1  Compositions  of  different  kinds  become  the  task  of  every  day;  Livy, 


18  SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

Sallust,  Tacitus,  the  orations  of  Cicero,  Virgil,  Horace  are  taken  for  the 
daily  reading,  interpretation,  and  translation.  The  teachers  are  de- 
sired to  dwell  not  so  much  on  the  beauties  of  the  language,  and  on  its 
character,  as  in  showing  the  ways  with  which  the  writers  unite  together 
the  different  parts  of  speech,  giving  to  their  writings  unity,  order,  and 
harmony. 

To  give  more  unity  to  this  study,  each  professor  of  the  grammatical 
course  carries  through  all  the  course  the  full  programme,  so  that  the  stu- 
dents passing  from  the  first  to  the  second  part  of  their  course,  do  not 
change  their  teacher,  who  follows  them  in  their  progress.  The  same 
thing  must  be  said  of  the  professors  of  rhetoric.  While  the  school  of 
Latin  proposes  to  make  Latin  scholars,  who  are  taught  to  speak  and  to 
write  that  language  with  purity  and  elegance,  the  school  of  Greek  lias  a 
more  limited  object,  viz.:  of  teaching  the  simple  knowledge  of  the  Greek 
writers.  The  method,  however,  of  this  instruction  does  not  differ  in  its 
substance  from  that  which  is  followed  in  teaching  the  Latin.  The  same 
method  is  applied  to  the  Italian,  which  as  the  national  language  takes  one 
of  the  most  important  parts  in  the  programme  of  the  secondary  schools, 
in  which  the  instruction  of  the  primary  course  is  continued  and  ampli- 
fied. We  might  say  that,in  the  course  of  rhetoric,  the  national  literature  is 
studied  rather  than  the  language,  which  finds  a  complete  instruction  in  the 
primary,  superior,  and  grammar  schools.  Besides  these  languages,  in  the 
colleges  generally,  the  pupils  are  taught  French,  in  a  few  German,  and  in 
some,  the  English  language.  The  method  is  left  entirely  to  the  discrim- 
ination of  the  teachers. 

Mathematics  form  another  branch  of  study  which  is  considered  of  the 
most  vital  importance  in  the  secondary  courses.  The  courses  of  gram- 
mar return  to  the  experimental  and  theoretical  arithmetic,  which  has 
been  a  subject  of  instruction  in  the  primary  schools.  But  it  is  rather 
than  mere  repetition  of  the  same  study,  a  complement  and  perfection  of 
elementary  arithmetic,  which  in  this  course  is  treated  not  only  in  its  de- 
termined quantities,  both  integral  and  fractionaries,  but  also  as  an  expres.- 
sion  of  undetermined  quantities,  giving  in  this  way  to  the  pupils  the  first 
and  fundamental  principles  of  algebra.  This  subject  is  more  enlarged 
in  the  course  of  rhetoric,  in  which  the  students  are  taught  a  more  direct 
application  of  the  arithmetical  principles  to  the  ordinary  uses  of  domes- 
tic and  commercial  economy,  and  it  becomes  one  of  the  two  main 
studies  of  the  first  part  of  the  course  of  philosophy,  in  which  the  knowl- 
edge acquired  in  the  preceding  schools  is  revived  and  amplified  on  its 
philosophical  grounds,  and  completed  with  a  thorough  study  of  alge- 
bra and  of  plain  and  solid  geometry.  The  complete  programme  of  mathe- 
matical study  as  it  is  developed  in  the  secondary  schools  follows  this  or- 
der : — idea  of  quantity  and  of  number ;  system  of  enumeration ;  the  four 
arithmetical  operations  on  integral  numbers ;  their  reduction,  and  philo- 
sophical grounds ;  application  of  the  rules  to  solution  of  problems ;  the 
properties  of  divisibility  of  integral  numbers ;  division  of  numbers ;  frac- 
tions, their  theory  and  principles ;  nature  and  character  of  fractions  f 


SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  19 

reduction  of  fractions  to  their  simplest  expression ;  the  greatest  common 
divisor ;  reduction  of  fractions  to  the  same  denominator.  The  rules  of 
the  first  operations  applied  to  fractions ;  alone  and  with  integral  num- 
bers. Decimal  fractions ;  system  of  their  construction  and  enunciation ; 
their  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  division ;  reduction  of  an  ordi- 
nary fraction  to  a  decimal  one ;  periodical  simple,  and  periodical  mixed ; 
transformation  of  fractions  into  others  of  same  value,  etc.  Complex  num- 
bers, their  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division.  The  deci- 
mal metric  system,  which  is  the  legal  system  of  weights  and  measures  of 
the  country — its  relation  with  the  systems  used  in  other  countries.  Differ- 
ence between  arithmetic  and  algebra ;  system  of  algebraical  enumeration, 
main  algebraical  operations,  rules,  and  their  philosophical  grounds.  Pow- 
ers of  numbers,  and  their  formation ;  extraction  of  square  and  cubic 
roots,  both  of  integral  and  fractionary  numbers — equations  and  their 
different  degrees.  Solution  of  equations  of  the  first  and  the  second  de- 
gree, with  one  or  more  unknown  quantities.  Problems  in  relation  with 
the  theory  of  equations.  Ratio  and  proportions.  Properties  of  arith- 
metical and  of  geometrical  proportions.  Direct  and  inverted  ratios. 
Rule  of  three  and  problems.  Double  rule  of  three.  Rule  of  interest  and 
its  application  to  business,  especially  to  loss  and  gain,  to  reduction  of 
currencies,  to  fellowship,  etc.  Geometry  is  taught  in  the  first  year  of  the 
course  of  philosophy ;  but  before  that  time  the  pupils  received  the  fun- 
damental ideas  of  that  science,  especially  in  the  superior  primary  course. 
In  the  course  of  philosophy  this  teaching  receives  a  complete  develop- 
ment, in  the  following  order.  After  having  given  the  first  and  fundament- 
al ideas,  the  professor  of  geometry  considers  in  his  lectures  straight  lines 
on  one  and  the  same  plane,  then  he  explains  the  theories,  the  theorems, 
and  the  problems  on  angles,  perpendicular  and  oblique  lines  on  triangles, 
on  parallels,  on  polygons,  on  proportional  lines,  on  similar  polygons,  and 
on  the  area  of  polygons ;  then  proceeds  to  circles  and  straight  lines  on 
one  and  the  same  plane ;  and  undertakes  to  develop  the  theorems  and  to 
solve  the  problems  on  the  circumferences  of  the  circles  and  the  straight 
lines,  which  have  some  points  in  common;  on  the  measure  of  angles,  on 
the  relations  of  straight  lines  which  meet  in  and  out  of  the  circle ;  on 
regular  polygons  inscribed  and  circumscribed,  and  on  the  area  of  circle ; 
after  which  he  applies  the  theories  to  the  solution  both  by  analysis  and 
synthesis  to  the  most  important  geometrical  problems.  Then  comes  the 
study  of  planes,  and  of  spaces  ended  by  planes ;  of  planes  meeting 
straight  lines ;  of  dyhedron  angles,  of  polyhedron  angles,  of  polyhedrons 
in  general,  and  especially  of  pyramid  and  prism,  on  volume  of  polyhe- 
dron on  similar  polyhedrons.  Then  cylinder,  cone,  sphere,  their  parts, 
properties,  measure,  volume  of  sphere,  etc.,  and  the  application  of  the 
theories  to  practical  problems. 

History,  not  less  than  mathematics,  takes  an  important  place  in  the 
programme.  The  fundamental  ideas  of  geography  precede  the  teach- 
ing of  this  branch,  and  in  the  course  of  grammar  the  professor  is  desired 
to  give  to  his  pupils  a  clear  knowledge  of  the  earth  and  of  its  natural 


20  SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

divisions,  using  in  their  teaching  maps  and  drawings.  In  the  same  time 
with  geography  is  given  the  instruction  of  history  by  ethnographical  pro- 
cess ;  the  basis  of  the  historical  study  is  laid,  however,  in  the  history  of 
Rome  and  Greece,  to  which  the  histories  of  all  other  ancient  peoples  are 
in  some  way  connected.  The  history  of  Rome  especially  becomes  one 
of  the  most  important  objects  of  all  the  instruction,  as  it  is  the  founda- 
tion not  only  of  modern  civilization,  but  of  all  the  history  of  Italy,  to 
which  the  attention  of  the  pupils  is  directed,  as  to  the  history  of  their 
own  nation.  This  is  divided  into  different  periods,  from  the  primitive 
immigrations  to  modern  times.  After  having  examined  the  different  im- 
migrations the  professor  considers  the  foundation  of  Rome,  and  follows 
its  early  development  in  religion,  politics,  and  general  civilization.  Then 
he  examines  the  causes  of  the  Roman  greatness  in  the  republic,  describ- 
ing its  constitution  with  the  modifications  which  were  gradually  intro- 
duced in  it,  the  conquests  made  through  a  century  of  war,  the  corrup- 
tion, and  the  civil  perturbations  of  the  internal  factions,  pointing  out  the 
Gracchi,  the  war  of  Jugurtha,  Marius  and  Sylla,  Pompeius,  Crassus, 
Caesar,  Cicero,  Catilina,  the  first  triumvirate,  Caesar's  dictatorship, 
which  brought  the  agony  and  death  of  the  republic.  The  attention  of 
the  pupils  is  next  directed  to  the  rise  of  the  Roman  empire,  to  its  progress, 
through  the  age  of  Augustus,  to  its  decline  under  Tiberius,  its  various 
vicissitudes  under  the  sway  of  the  three  last  scions  of  Caasar's  family, 
and  of  the  three  Flavii,  their  successors.  Then  the  best  century  of  the 
empire  is  considered  in  the  times  of  Trajan  and  his  successors,  until  the 
commencement  of  its  decline  through  many  emperors  from  Commodus 
to  the  successors  of  Diocletian,  to  be  restored  again  by  Constantino,  for* 
some  time,  till  it  is  destroyed.  In  perusing  this  period  of  the  Roman 
history,  the  professor  is  requested  to  mark  the  different  characters  of  the 
two  civilizations,  which  he  meets  in  that  period,  the  one  old  and  pa- 
gan, the  other  new  and  Christian.  The  invasion  of  the  barbarians,  the 
restoration  of  the  kingdom  under  the  Longobards,  the  popes,  and  their 
quarrel  with  the  dukes  and  kings,  the  fall  of  the  Longobards,  the  forma- 
tion of  a  code  of  laws,  which  ruled  for  a  long  time  all  the  civil  nations, 
Charlemagne,  and  the  kings  sent  by  the  emperor  to  rule  Italy.  Their 
successors  form  the  subject  of  another  period,  and  thus  the  period  of  the 
Italian  municipalities  is  opened,  in  which  so  many  great  historical  facts 
recur  to  the  teachers.  Here  we  find  the  age  of  Gregory  VII.,  the  first 
municipal  constitutions,  the  crusades,  the  quarrels  between  cities,  em- 
perors, and  popes,  the  insolence  of  the  feudal  masters,  the  schism  of  the 
west,  the  parties  which  divided  the  entire  nation.  Here  the  programme 
takes  great  amplification  on  account  of  the  history  of  Piedmont  which  as 
an  individual  state  properly  begins  from  this  period.  (1100 — 1434.) 
The  professor  of  history  is  naturally  called  to  dwell  with  preference  on 
this  part  of  the  history  of  Italy,  and  to  endeavor  to  give  to  his  pupils  a 
clear  and  thorough  idea  of  its  gradual  development.  He  is  requested 
also  to  describe  the  ages  and  the  facts  of  the  Visconti,  Medici,  of  the  other, 
most  influential  families,  the  different  schisms  which  occurred  in  thif£ 


SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  21 

period,  and  finally  the  civilization  of  this  age,  which  in  many  respects 
surpassed  not  only  the  preceding  but  also  the  following  periods.  Next 
comes  the  history  of  the  Spanish  dominion  over  Italy,  the  ages  of  Eman- 
uel  Philibert,  Charles  Emanuel  I.,  Victor  Amedeus  II.,  the  wars  of  the 
French  revolution,  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  the  peace  of  Amiens, 
Napoleon  consul  and  president  of  the  Italian  republic,  and  then  emperor 
and  king  of  Italy.  The  programme  is  closed  with  a  view  of  the  treaty 
of  1815,  of  the  partial  revolutions  which  have  taken  place  in  Italy  since 
that  time,  and  especially  the  great  struggle  for  the  national  independence 
in  1848^9. 

Logic,  metaphysics,  and  geometry  constitute  the  main  studies  of  the 
first  part  of  the  course  of  philosophy.  Having  given  before  the  pro- 
gramme of  geometry,  we  will  add  here  the  order  of  the  subjects  of  logic 
and  metaphysics,  on  which  the  professor  is  required  to  deliver  his  daily 
lectures.  As  an  introduction  to  that  study,  some  lectures  are  delivered 
on  the  general  idea  of  philosophy,  on  its  definition,  division,  method, 
and  history.  Then  the  teaching  goes  through  the  fundamental  princi- 
ples of  anthropology,  as  far  as  is  necessary  to  prepare  the  minds  of  the 
pupils  for  the  higher  questions  of  logic  and  metaphysics.  Thus  a  gene- 
ral description  of  the  human  faculties  is  given,  grouping  all  them  in  three 
great  divisions,  of  animal,  intellectual,  and  moral.  The  senses,  sensual 
imagination,  animal  instinct,  intellectual  perception,  attention,  analysis 
and  synthesis,  abstraction,  judgment,  reasoning,  memory,  intellectual 
imagination,  will,  freedom,  spiritual  sentiment  and  instinct,  present  so 
many  different  subjects  of  instruction,  and  afford  the  occasion  of  refuting 
the  doctrine  of  the  sensualist  school,  after  which  the  programme  enters 
in  logic  properly  so  called.  This  is  considered  as  the  science  of  the  art 
of  reasoning.  And  as  the  object  of  reasoning  is  certitude,  viz.:  the  cer- 
tain knowledge  of  truth,  so  logic  is  divided  in  two  parts ;  the  first  of 
which  proposes  to  teach  the  essence  of  truth,  to  establish  its  existence, 
and  to  show  that  reasoning  is  the  certain  means  to  attain  it ;  the  second 
part  teaches  the  method  of  reasoning  to  this  end.  Thus  after  having  ex- 
plained the  nature  of  truth,  the  professor  establishes  its  existence,  refutes 
all  scepticisms,  inquiries  into  the  supreme  criterion  of  truth  and  certitude, 
distinguishes  different  species  of  certitude  and  settles  their  relative  prin- 
ciples, draws  the  different  theories  of  probability,  and  shows  the  nature 
of  ignorance,  doubt,  and  error,  pointing  out  their  causes  and  remedies. 
Entering  afterward  into  the  art  of  reasoning,  viz.:  into  methodology,  he  dis- 
tinguishes the  different  species  of  method,  inquisitive,  deductive,  and  in- 
ductive, establishes  their  different  nature  and  laws,  and  takes  this  occa- 
sion for  developing  the  theory  of  argumentation,  its  different  forms,  and 
faults ;  he  concludes  the  first  part  of  logic  with  the  theory  and  rules  of 
criticism  and  exegesis.  In  the  second  part  are  considered  the  principles 
of  the  didactic  method,  of  which  the  laws  are  settled,  and  fixes  the  rules 
of  division,  definition,  and  demonstration ;  finally  the  pupils  are  directed 
to  the  method  of  polemics,  by  learning  the  rules  which  ought  to  preside 
over  every  kind  of  disputation,  academic  or  Socratic. 


22  SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

Metaphysics  are  divided  into  three  parts  ;  psychology,  cosmology,  and 
theology.  In  the  first  is  considered  the  nature  of  the  human  soul,  and 
its  simplicity  and  spirituality  is  demonstrated  by  its  three  fundamental 
faculties.  The  origin  of  the  human  soul,  its  connection  with  the  body, 
and  its  immortality  form  the  other  subjects  of  psychology.  Cosmology 
considers  the  world  in  its  ultimate  reasons,  and  treats  of  the  nature  of 
contingent  beings  and  of  their  cause,  of  the  general  order  of  the  world, 
and  establishes  the  general  cosmic  laws,  to  which  all  created  beings  are 
submitted.  Theology  is  preceded  by  an  introduction,  in  which  are  laid 
down  the  principles  of  ontology,  viz.:  the  science  which  considers  the 
being  in  its  unity  of  essence  and  in  its  trinity  of  forms.  This  leads  the 
mind  to  theology,  in  which  the  existence  of  God  is  demonstrated,  his  at- 
tributes described,  and  especially  the  relation  of  the  creating  act,  both 
with  the  act  of  the  divine  essence  and  of  the  creatures  themselves,  is 
considered. 

In  the  second  year  of  the  course  of  philosophy  the  students  are  taught 
moral  philosophy  and  physical  science. 

The  professor  of  moral  philosophy  divides  his  teaching  in  two  main 
parts ;  in  the  first  of  which  he  considers  ethics  in  their  general  princi- 
ples, in  the  second  in  their  application.  The  general  ethics  are  divided 
in  three  parts,  viz.:  pure  nomology,  i.  e.,  the  science  of  the  supreme  moral 
principle ;  moral  psychology,  viz.:  the  science  of  man  considered  as  a  subj  ect 
of  moral  obligation;  and  moral  logic,  viz.:  the  science  which  teaches  the 
art  of  applying  moral  law  to  man.  Here  we  have  the  discussion  on  the 
essence  of  morality,  of  good  and  evil  generally  and  especially,  of  moral 
law,  of  the  supreme  moral  principle,  and  its  consequences,  of  natural 
law,  considered  as  innate,  of  its  character  and  properties,  of  its  pro- 
mulgation, obligation  and  sanction.  After  having  given  a  comparative 
history  of  the  principal  moral  systems  which  occur  in  the  history  of  phi- 
losophy, the  professor  enters  upon  the  exposition  of  the  moral  faculties, 
and  establishes  the  nature  of  human  as  distinguished  from  moral  acts  and 
of  moral  as  distinguished  from  free  acts,  and  gives  the  theory  of  moral 
responsibility.  In  moral  logic  he  considers  especially  the  nature  and 
origin  of  moral  conscience,  its  species  and  rules.  Then  coming  to  the 
application  he  considers  the  principal  moral  formulas,  which  are  derived 
from  the  supreme  moral  Imperative,  and  dwells  upon  those,  the  objects 
of  which  are  God  and  man.  Here  he  discourses  on  religion,  and  reli- 
gious duties  and  especially  on  the  Christian  religion,  considered  in  itself 
above  all  sectarian  doctrines.  Then  comes  the  discussion  on  duties  to- 
ward ourselves  and  our  neighbors,  on  the  duties  of  our  own  moral,  intel- 
lectual, and  eudsemonologic  perfection,  on  the  criterion  of  our  duties  to- 
ward our  neighbors,  on  duties  of  justice,  and  benevolence,  where  the 
complete  theory  is  given  of  right,  its  different  species,  its  derivation, 
transmission  and  modification.  Then  the  discussion  on  duties  arising 
from  society, — on  society  itself,  and  on  its  different  species,  natural,  do- 
mestic and  civil.  In  speaking  of  civil  society,  the  professor  is  required 
to  give  a  complete  exposition  of  the  political  constitution  of  the  country, 


SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  23 

and  of  duties,  and  rights  arising  from  it.  Finally  the  moral  formulas  are 
considered  in  the  man,  who  executes  them,  in  his  moral  habits ;  and  here 
a  complete  theory  is  given  of  moral  virtue  and  vice,  and  of  their  species. 

The  programme  of  physical  science  is  the  following :  first  part. — Ob- 
ject of  the  physical  science,  bodies,  matter,  atoms,  simple  and  compound 
bodies,  constitution  of  bodies,  general  properties  of  bodies,  natural  forces 
or  agents. — Statics ;  equilibrium  of  a  material  point  Parallel  forces. 
Simple  machines.  Dynamics.  Simple  movement  Compound  and  uni- 
form movement.  Reflexed  movement  Elastic  and  not  elastic  bodies. 

Hydrostatics ;  Homogeneous  liquids,  pressure  of  liquids,  floating  or 
immersed  bodies,  specific  gravity,  heterogeneous  liquids.  Hydrodynam- 
ics; Torricelli's  theorem,  and  its  different  applications.  Pneumatics; 
gravity  of  the  air,  barometer,  elasticity  of  the  ah*,  Mariotti's  law,  elas- 
ticity of  a  mixture  of  gases.  Acoustics ;  velocity,  intensity,  echo,  prop- 
erties of  sounds,  vibrating  cords,  scale,  harmonious  sounds,  the  sense  of 
hearing,  and  of  voice.  Astronomy  ;  fundamental  ideas  of  uranography, 
and  geography.  Sphere,  celestial  globes,  terrestrial  globes,  and  geo- 
graphical maps.  Apparent  movement  of  the  sun,  moon,  planets.  Proofs 
of  the  truth  of  the  system  of  Copernicus,  Kepler's  laws,  precession  of  the 
equinoxes,  the  tides,  general  idea  of  the  solar  system,  comets,  peculiari- 
ties of  the  sun  and  planets ;  sidereal  astronomy,  fixed  stars,  distances, 
paralax,  double  stars,  movement  of  the  stars,  nebulous  stars,  milky  way, 
measures  of  time.  Second  part. — Molecular  attraction  ;  crystallization, 
theory  of  Hauy — relation  between  the  crystalline  form  and  the  atomic 
constitution  of  bodies,  isomorphism,  and  bimorphism,  chemical  laws, 
allotropy,  capillary  attraction,  endosmosis,  molecular  constitution  of 
bodies,  mechanical  qualities  of  bodies.  Caloric ;  variation  of  volume 
and  temperature,  thermometer,  common  thermometer,  differential  ther- 
mometer, thermoscopium  of  Rumford,  pyrometers,  changes,  latent  and 
sensible  caloric,  caloric  of  fusion,  caloric  of  elasticity,  specific  caloric, — 
method  of  mixtures,  Lavoisier's  method,  method  of  cooling.  Specific 
caloric  of  gases,  specific  caloric  with  a  constant  pressure  and  a  constant 
volume,  radiant  caloric,  its  intensity,  reflexion  of  caloric,  reflecting  power, 
diffusion  of  caloric,  power  of  emission  and  absorption,  transmitted  caloric, 
termocrosis,  conducted  caloric,  its  coefficient,  safety  lamp.  Steams  and 
gases,  elasticity  of  steams,  mixture  of  steams  and  gases,  density,  influence 
of  pressure  on  evaporation,  ebullition,  Papin's  digester,  eolipile,  steam- 
engines,  hygrometry,  Saussure's  hygrometer,  other  hygrometers,  sources 
of  caloric,  caloric  by  mechanic  action,  molecular  actions,  chemical  operations, 
animal  heat,  artificial  cold,  mixtures  producing  cold.  Static  electricity  ; 
sources  of  electricity,  conductors  and  non-conductors,  electrical  machines, 
attractions  and  repulsions,  hypothesis  of  two  fluids,  electrometers,  electrical 
light,  electrical  induction,  diffusion  of  electricity  on  the  superficies  of 
bodies,  points,  accumulated  electricity,  Leydenjar,  magic  table,  condensed 
ilectrophorus,  electrical  battery,  lightning,  lightning-rods,  hypothesis  of 
Franklin.  Galvanism  ;  Experiments  of  Galvani  and  Volta,  experiment  of 
lisks,  Voltaic  pile — Its  theory  according  to  Volta,  chemical  theory  of  the 


24  SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

piles,  electrometers,  effects  of  the  electrical  current,  chemical,  physic, 
and  physiologic  effects,  electricity  developed  from  heat,  electricity  in  the 
crystal  thermo-electrical  currents,  thermo-electrical  piles,  electricity  of 
steam-engines,  animal  electricity.  Magnetism  ;  General  phenomena,  an- 
cient hypotheses  on  magnetism,  artificial  magnetic,  polarity,  declination, 
inclination,  and  variations  of  the  magnetic  needle,  compass,  magnetic 
intensity.  Electro-magnetism;  Ampere's  theory,  electro-dynamic  and 
electro-magnetic  forces,  analogies  between  electro-dynamic  cylinders, 
magnet,  and  earth,  electro-dynamical  state  of  the  earth,  electro-mag- 
netic and  maguo-electric  induction,  electro-magnetic  and  magno-elec- 
tric  currents,  their  chemical  force,  secondary  currents  of  induction, 
Volta-electric  induction,  double  induction,  current  inducted  from  the 
Leyden  jar,  hypothesis  on  the  terrestrial  magnetism.  Optics;  catoptrics, 
theories  of  light,  its  propagation,  its  intensity,  law  of  reflexion,  images 
of  plain  mirrors,  spherical  mirrors,  anamorphosis ;  dioptrics,  refraction, 
Descartes'  law,  prism,  lens,  amplifying  force,  optical  instruments,  sight, 
decomposition  of  light,  property  of  the  spectrum,  achromatism,  colors,  de- 
fraction,  colored  images,  reflexion  and  refraction  in  the  theory  of  undu- 
lations, constitutions  of  a  ray,  colors  of  polarized  light,  circular  polarity, 
polarity  of  calorific  and  chemical  rays.  Meteorology  ;  constitution  of  the 
atmosphere,  terrestrial  temperature,  middle  temperature,  temperature  of 
the  ground  in  different  depths,  temperature  of  fountains,  temperature  of 
lakes  and  seas,  atmospheric  temperatures,  perpetual  snows.  Winds; 
periodical  winds,  irregular  winds,  hurricanes,  waterspouts,  watery  mete- 
ors, dew,  white-frost,  clouds  and  fog,  rain,  snow,  wonderful  rains,  hail, 
electric  and  fire  meteors,  atmospheric  electricity,  phosphoric  fires,  meteoric 
stones,  and  falling  stars,  aurora  borealis ;  light  meteors,  rainbow,  parhe- 
lions,  fata  morgana,  barometric  variations,  periodic  and  irregular. 

The  teaching  on  physical  science  is  given  by  lectures,  recitations,  writ- 
ten composition  ;  and  it  is  explained  by  a  series  of  experiments,  which 
the  pupils  attend  according  to  the  order  of  the  lectures.  For  these  ex- 
periments the  municipalities  are  requested  to  furnish  the  colleges  of  their 
own  cities  with  apparatus  and  instruments,  of  which  every  college  pos- 
sesses a  collection  more  or  less  complete.*  The  other  parts  of  the  course 
of  philosophy  are  also  taught  by  lectures,  and  by  recitations,  in  which 
generally  the  Socratic  method  is  followed.  The  teaching  of  the  courses  of 
grammar  and  of  rhetoric  proceeds  by  lectures,  reading  and  explanation 
of  classics,  by  translations  and  compositions,  and  by  learning  the  theo- 
retic rules  of  grammar  and  of  rhetoric,  which  are  previously  explained 
by  the  professors  from  the  text-books,  and  which  are  gradually  applied 
to  practical  examples. 

The  discipline  of  the  schools  is  kept  by  a  stringent  enforcement  of  all 
the  regulations,  which  are  sanctioned  by  the  permanent  committee  for 
the  direction  of  the  secondary  instruction.  Yet  every  kind  of  corporal 
punishment  is  strictly  prohibited  not  only  in  the  secondary,  but  also  hi 

*  Besides  these  collections  of  scientific  apparatus,  almost  every  city  possesses  a  public 
library  for  the  use  of  its  college  and  population. 


SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  25 

the  primary  courses  ;  and  the  only  means  allowed  for  the  correction  of 
the  refractory  pupils  are  the  admonition  given  by  the  professor,  by 
the  director,  or  by  the  superintendent  of  the  schools,  according  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  offense.  Sometimes  the  admonition  is  given  before  the 
collegial  council,  and  when  this  fails  to  bring  the  pupil  to  his  duty,  he  is 
formally  expelled  from  the  college.  In  this  case  he  can  not  be  admitted 
into  any  other  college  of  the  State,  before  he  obtains  such  an  admission 
from  the  government. 

The  secondary  instruction  in  the  colleges  of  the  State  is  almost  free ; 
as  the  pupils  are  only  obliged  to  pay  a  small  annual  fee  of  fifteen 
francs.  The  teaching  is  given  every  day  of  the  week,  except  Thurs- 
days and  Sundays;  the  scholastic  year  begins  on  the  15th  of  October,  and 
ends  for  the  course  of  philosophy  in  the  last  part  of  June,  and  for  the 
other  courses  with  the  close  of  July. 

In  1856,  there  were  39  royal  and  national  colleges  supported  by  the 
government.  In  the  same  year  there  were  47  municipal  colleges  more 
or  less  complete;  the  pupils  reached  a  total  number  of  15,000,  and  the 
number  of  teachers  and  professors  was  about  1000.  There  were  besides 
a  few  seminaries,  belonging  to  bishops,  in  which  the  pupils  were  prepared 
for  the  ecclesiastical  education  to  be  given  in  the  high  seminaries,  after 
they  have  completed  the  secondary  course.  The  instruction  given7  in  these 
seminaries  is  not  recognized  by  the  government,  and  does  not  give  any 
right  to  the  pupils  to  be  admitted  to  the  university,  unless  the  bishops 
obtain  the  permission  ot  opening  such  seminaries,  and  unless  the  teach- 
ers and  professors  appointed  by  them  have  received  their  diploma  from 
the  university.  In  every  case  the  government  reserves  to  itself  the  right 
of  inspection  in  these  institutions.  There  are  also  a  few  private  schools, 
to  which  are  granted  the  privileges  of  the  public  institutions ;  viz.:  of 
presenting  their  pupils  for  admission  to  the  university.  But  to  enjoy 
this  privilege,  the  professors  must  have  received  their  diploma  from  the 
university,  must  follow  the  programmes  of  the  public  schools,  use  the 
same  text-books  approved  for  the  colleges,  and  pay  the  ordinary  fees  to 
the  treasurer.  Besides,  a  special  decree  of  the  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion is  required  by  which  the  establishment  of  such  schools  is  granted. 
Parents,  however,  have  a  right  to  have  their  children  educated  in  their 
own  families ;  but  for  the  validity  of  the  course  of  philosophy  they  must 
give  them  this  instruction  through  professors  approved  by  the  university. 
For  any  other  course  the  certificate  of  a  parent,  by  which  it  is  testified 
that  his  child  pursued  the  regular  course  of  grammar  and  rhetoric  in  his 
own  family,  is  sufficient  to  have  him  admitted  to  the  examination  for  ad- 
mission to  the  courses  of  the  university. 

GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SECONDARY  CLASSICAL  SCHOOLS.— The  direction  of 
these  schools  and  colleges  belongs  to  a  permanent  committee  of  five  mem- 
bers of  the  council  of  the  university.  The  number  of  these  committees  is 
equal  to  the  number  of  the  universities,  and  their  jurisdiction  is  confined 
to  the  district  embraced  by  the  university,  to  which  they  belong.  Under 
the  dependence  of  these  committees  there  are  four  inspectors,  whose  duty 
3 


og  SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

it  is  to  visit  every  year  all  the  public  and  private  secondary  schools.  Be- 
sides there  is  in  every  college  a  council,  which  is  presided  over  by  the 
royal  superintendent  of  the  schools  of  the  province,  and  composed  of  the 
director  of  instruction,  of  the  professor  of  religion,  of  one  of  the  pro- 
fessors of  philosophy,  of  one  of  rhetoric,  of  one  of  grammar,  and  of 
another  of  mathematics,  or  of  any  other  scientific  course.  This  council 
has  the  immediate  direction  of  the  college,  and  it  is  its  duty  to  enforce 
the  regulations  published  by  the  permanent  committee,  to  which  they 
send  an  annual  report  of  the  conditions  of  the  schools.  Should  there  be 
an  establishment  for  boarding  and  lodging  the  pupils  annexed  to  the  col- 
leges, as  in  some  cases,  a  president  is  appointed  to  direct  it  in  connection 
with  a  council  of  administration.  In  this  case  a  censor  of  discipline  and 
a  few  assistants  are  added  to  the  other  officers. 

TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS. — As  primary  schools  are  intended  to  give  to  all 
the  citizens  a  general  knowledge,  such  as  is  necessary  to  man  without  dis- 
tinction of  class  or  difference  of  calling,  secondary  instruction  has  for 
its  object  the  education  and  development  of  more  special  intellectual  ca- 
pacities, and  the  preparation  of  its  students  for  different  scientific  or  artis- 
tic professions.  The  secondary  classical  schools  prepare  youth  for  the 
professions  of  the  university,  while  the  technical  education  proposes  to 
direct  the  students  through  other  courses  which  find  no  opening  in  the 
university.  This  instruction,  considered  as  a  general  system,  is  of  a  re- 
cent origin ;  having  been  organized  only  since  1848.  In  that  year,  when 
the  government  founded  the  national  colleges,  there  were  annexed  to  these 
institutions  technical  courses,  which  were  afterward  established  in  con- 
nection with  many  other  schools.  The  course  of  these  schools  is  of  five 
years,  and  the  students  are  admitted  to  it  after  they  have  passed  the  full 
primary  course.  The  programme  taught  in  these  courses,  embraces  reli- 
gion, Italian  literature,  history  and  geography,  elementary  and  superior 
mathematics,  mechanics,  physical  science,  chemistry,  statistics,  political 
economy,  commercial  law,  commercial  arithmetic,  book-keeping,  draw- 
ing, both  ornamental  and  of  machines,  natural  history,  French,  German, 
English  languages,  drawing  of  figures,  singing  and  playing  of  pianoforte, 
declamatory  art,  gymnastics,  military  exercises,  fencing,  dancing,  calli- 
graphy. There  are  about  fifteen  of  these  schools  more  or  less  complete ;  the 
best  of  which  are  connected  with  some  of  the  national  or  royal  colleges. 
The  number  of  the  professors  of  the  technical  courses  varies  from  ten  to 
twenty,  according  to  the  less  or  greater  development  of  the  programme. 

Besides  these  courses  there  exists  in  Turin  a  ROYAL  TECHNICAL  INSTITUTE, 
with  the  following  classes :  1st,  mechanics  applied  to  arts  and  industry. 
2d,  chemistry,  applied ;  3d,  geometry,  applied ;  4th,  agricultural  chemistry. 
5th,  agriculture.  6th,  forestry.  7th,  descriptive  geometry  and  geometric- 
al drawing.  A  professor  of  the  institute  is  entrusted  with  the  direction  of 
the  school,  and  he  is  assisted  by  a  council  of  administration  especially 
appointed  by  the  government.  The  professors  are  requested  to  expound 
in  their  courses  the  theoretical  principles  of  the  science,  over  the  teach- 
ing of  which  they  preside,  and  to  make  the  applications,  the  best  adapted 


SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  27 

to  the  objects.  Besides  this  ordinary  instruction,  they  are  directed  to 
deliver  one  or  more  special  courses  on  some  particular  branch  of  applica- 
tion, and  to  organize  practical  exercises  adapted  to  the  nature  of  their 
lectures.  Each  professor  is  obliged  to  deliver  at  least  two  lectures  a 
week,  which  must  be  illustrated  by  demonstrations  and  experiments. 
The  institute  possesses  for  this  object  a  laboratory,  and  various  collections 
of  scientific  apparatus,  drawings,  models,  engines,  and  natural  produc- 
tions. The  lectures  are  public  and  free,  and  no  examination  is  required 
from  the  students,  in  order  to  be  admitted  to  them.  The  students,  how- 
ever, after  having  completed  the  course  of  their  instruction,  have  the 
right  to  present  themselves  for  the  examination,  and  to  receive  a  certifi- 
cate from  the  examiners.  The  course  of  the  institute  is  opened  in  the 
middle  of  November,  and  ends  with  the  month  of  June. 

There  are  also  in  Turin  THREE  SPECIAL  COURSES,  directed  according  to  the 
programme  of  the  national  colleges,  two  PUBLIC  TECHNICAL  COMMERCIAL 
SCHOOLS,  and  a  FREE  SCHOOL  OF  DRAWING  APPLIED  TO  ARTS  AND  INDUSTRY. 
In  the  same  city  we  find  a  SCHOOL  OF  ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPHING,  a  SCHOOL 
OF  GYMNASTICS  connected  with  the  association  for  the  progress  of  gymnas- 
tic exercises,  and  a  VETERINARY  SCHOOL  supported  by  the  government  and 
directed  by  three  professors  and  two  assistants.  The  pupils  are  obliged 
to  attend  most  of  the  lectures  delivered  in  the  ROYAL  TECHNICAL  INSTITUTE, 
in  addition  to  the  instruction  which  they  receive  in  the  veterinary 
school. 

Genoa  can  boast  of  a  TECHNICAL  SCHOOL  in  which  are  taught  chemistry, 
mechanics,  and  geometry,  applied  to  arts,  geometry,  arithmetic  and  trig- 
onometry applied  to  navigation,  navigation,  naval  construction,  and  design. 
There  is  also  a  TECHNICAL  COURSE  connected  with  its  national  college,  and 
a  SCHOOL  OF  COMMERCE  ;  besides  a  ROYAL  SCHOOL  OF  MARINES,  in  which  are 
given  courses  of  mechanics,  of  astronomy  and  hydrography  applied  to 
navigation,  of  elementary,  analytic  and  descriptive  geometry,  of  infinites- 
imal calculus,  algebra,  plain  and  spherical  trigonometry,  navigation, 
chemical  and  physical  sciences,  naval  construction,  fortification,  artillery 
and  military  art,  history,  physical  and  political  statistics,  and  commercial 
geometry.  The  pupils  are  also  taught  Italian  literature,  the  English  and 
French  languages,  drawing,  calligraphy,  fencing,  and  dancing.  In  the 
summer  of  each  year  the  pupils  make  a  voyage  of  instruction  in  ships  be- 
longing to  the  State.  The  institution  is  conducted  by  sixteen  officers  and 
professors,  and  has  about  sixty  pupils.  In  Genoa,  there  is  in  operation  a 
FREE  AND  MUNICIPAL  INSTITUTION  OF  Music,  for  both  sexes,  with  the  fol- 
lowing course  of  instruction :  musical  composition,  singing,  piano-forte, 
violin,  double  bass,  violoncello,  clarinet,  flute,  cornet,  and  other  instru- 
ments. It  is  directed  by  thirteen  professors. 

Chambery  has  a  SPECIAL  COURSE  connected  with  its  national  college,  and 
TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS  of  mechanics  and  chemistry  applied  to  arts.  Nice 
possesses  also  a  SPECIAL  COURSE  in  its  national  college,  a  SCHOOL  OF  COM- 
MERCE supported  by  a  private  association  and  by  subsidies  from  the  gov- 
ernment and  the  municipality,  and  a  FREE  SCHOOL  OF  NAVIGATION. 


28  SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

We  find  in  the  other  principal  cities  technical  schools,  more  or  less  ex- 
tensive, according  to  their  means  and  specialities,  and  which  are  all  free  and 
supported  either  by  the  government,  or  by  the  municipalities,  or  by  pri- 
vate associations.  Among  those  we  may  mention  as  the  most  prominent : 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  AGRICULTURE,  of  Motte-Servollex,  in  Savoy. 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  WATCHMAKING,  of  Cluses,  in  Savoy. 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  COMMERCE,  of  Bonneville,  in  Savoy. 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  TRADES,  of  Biella,  connected  with  the  Associa- 
tion for  the  advancement  of  arts,  trade,  and  agriculture  of  that  province. 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  ORNAMENT  AND  ARCHITECTURE  of  Chiavari,connected  with 
the  Economical  Association  of  that  city. 

BELLINI'S  INSTITUTION  OF  ARTS  AND  TRADE,  at  Novara. 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  LAND  SURVEYING  AND  THE  SCHOOL  FOR  ARTISANS,  of 
Casale. 
-  THE  SCHOOL  OF  DESIGN,  of  Varallo. 

THE  COLLEGE  FOR  THE  CHILDREN  of  officers  and  soldiers,  at  Racconiggi. 

THE  MILITARY  SCHOOL  OF  CAVALRY,  of  Pinerolo. 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  PONTONEERS,  at  Casale. 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  NAVIGATION  of  Villafranca. 

THE  ECCLESIASTICAL  SEMINARIES  belong  to  the  system  of  special  instruc- 
tion, as  their  object  consists  in  training  students  of  Divinity,  and  candi- 
dates for  the  priesthood.  The  pupils  are  boarded  and  lodged  in  these  insti- 
tutions, for  which  either  they  pay  a  moderate  price,  or  are  entirely  ex- 
empted from  any  payment,  according  to  the  means  of  the  seminaries,  and 
the  pleasure  of  the  bishops.  The  entire  course  of  the  seminary  lasts 
seven  years,  and  embraces  courses  of  philosophy,  and  of  theology.  The 
course  of  philosophy  lasts  two  years,  and  does  not  differ  from  the  col- 
legiate coarse.  Theology  is  divided  into  two  main  parts,  dogmatic 
and  moral.  In  the  best  institutions  there  is  also  a  course  of  canon  law, 
ecclesiastical  history,  liturgy  and  sacred  oratory.  They  own  property 
and  support  themselves.  The  government,  however,  pays  a  salary  to  one 
of  the  professors  of  theology,  whenever  the  bishops  submit  the  appoint- 
ment to  its  approbation,  admit  in  their  establishments  the  treatises  pre- 
scribed by  the  university,  and  allow  them  to  be  inspected  by  the  official 
inspectors.  There  are  about  forty-four  of  these  seminaries,  most  of 
which  have  of  late  refused  to  submit  to  any  control  from  the  government. 

SCHOOLS  OF  THE  WALDENSES. — Though  the  Waldenses  enjoy  the  full 
right  of  availing  themselves  of  public  instruction,  under  the  direction  of 
the  government,  yet  in  those  places  where  they  constitute  the  majority 
of  the  population,  they  have  schools  of  their  own.  Such  is  TRINITY  COL- 
LEGE,  established  at  Torre,  where  pupils  are  taught  theology,  philosophy, 
and  belles-lettres,  and  with  which  three  elementary  schools  are  connected. 
We  find  also  primary  schools  in  all  the  parishes  of  the  Waldenses  in  the 
valleys  of  Lucerne,  Perosa,  St.  Martin,  etc.  They  have  also  a  SUPERIOR 
SCHOOL  FOR  GIRLS,  at  Torre,  and  some  LATIN  SCHOOLS — all  of  which  are 
conducted  according  to  the  programme  of  the  state. 

The  government  of  the  TECHNICAL  COURSES  AND  SCHOOLS,  which  arc 


SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  29 

supported  by  the  government  itself,  belongs  to  the  general  Council  of 
elementary  instruction,  the  organization  of  which  we  have  described  else- 
where. The  EOYAL  TECHNICAL  INSTITUTE,  however,  is  directed  by  a  spe- 
cial council  of  administration,  under  the  immediate  direction  of  the  minis- 
ter. In  regard  to  the  others,  they  are  under  special  administrations,  over 
which  the  government  retains  a  right  of  control  and  inspection. 

In  connection  with  the  public  technical  or  special  schools  we  may  glance 
at  a  number  of  provident  and  reformatory  institutions  which,  though 
they  do  not  belong  strictly  to  the  system  of  public  instruction,  contribute 
largely  to  the  education  and  general  improvement  of  the  capital. 

ROYAL  HOUSE  OF  VIRTUE,  (£.  Albergo  di  Virtu,)  founded  in  1587,  in 
which  120  poor  boys  are  gratuitously  lodged  and  supported,  instructed 
and  trained  to  some  art,  such  as  the  manufacture  of  silk  and  woolen 
goods,  ribbons,  laces,  stockings,  or  to  some  mechanical  trade. 

COLLEGE  OP  YOUNG  ARTISANS,  (Collegia  degli  Artigianelli,)  recently 
founded  by  private  benevolence  for  the  purpose  of  sheltering,  educa- 
ting and  training  poor  and  abandoned  boys  to  some  mechanical  or  agri- 
cultural pursuit. 

ROYAL  MENDICANT  ASYLUM,  (R.  Ricovero  di  Afendicita,)  founded  in 
1840,  for  persons  found  begging  in  the  streets,  who  are  provided  for,  and 
set  to  work — they  enjoy  a  part  of  the  proceeds  of  their  labor. 

ROYAL  COLLEGE  OF  PROVIDENCE  accommodates  140  respectable  young 
ladies,  and  gives  them  instruction  in  every  kind  of  feminine  em- 
ployment. 

HOUSES  OF  REFUGE,  (H  Soccorso  e  il  Deposito,)  where  the  daughters  of 
respectable  impoverished  families  have  a  home,  and  are  educated  and 
trained  to  different  kinds  of  work. 

ASYLUM  OF  THE  ROSINE,  (II  Ritiro  delle  Rosine,}  where  330  poor  girls  are 
boarded  and  lodged,  and  provided  with  instruction  and  employment. 

ASYLUM  OF  THE  SAPELLINE,  founded  in  1822,  as  a  home  for  young  girls 
who  are  morally  endangered,  where  they  are  instructed  and  trained  to 
feminine  occupations. 

HOME  FOR  ORPHAN  GIRLS,  (Monasterio  delle  Povere  Orfane,)  founded 
in  1550. 

ROYAL  ASYLUM  for  daughters  of  military  officers.  This  institution 
accommodates  about  seventy  inmates,  with  a  home  education. 

INSTITUTION  FOR  VAGRANTS,  founded  in  1776.  It  gives  employment 
and  instruction  to  the  extreme  poor  and  their  children,  and  bestows  a 
small  dowry  on  the  girls  when  they  marry.  The  instruction  is  given  by 
volunteers,  gentlemen  and  ladies  of  high  social  standing. 

THE  LITTLE  HOME  OF  DIVINE  PROVIDENCE,  (Piccolo,  Casa  delta 
Divina  Providenza,)  founded  in  1829,  as  a  home  for  infirm,  sick,  and 
poor  people  of  every  age.  It  has  accommodations  for  1200  inmates, 
who  are  classified  according  to  their  condition  in  the  Orphan  Asylum, 
the  Infant  Schools,  (of  which  there  are  five,)  School  for  the  Deaf-mutes, 
the  Hospital,  &c.  The  workshops  are  well  appointed  and  managed. 
The  carpets,  laces,  and  wool-tissues  manufactured  here  are  in  great 


30  SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

demand,  and  have  twice  received  the  golden  medal  at  the  national  indus- 
trial exhibition.  There  is  also  a  School  for  Jtfusic,  in  which  pupils  are 
trained  for  the  Royal  Chapel. 

ROYAL  NORMAL  SCHOOL  FOR  DEAF-MUTES,  founded  in  1834.  It  receives 
pupils  of  both  sexes  between  the  age  of  10  and  16  years,  who  pay  a 
small  sum  for  their  board  and  lodging.  After  they  have  received  a  suffi- 
cient instruction,  the  boys  are  trained  to  the  practice  of  some  trade  in 
some  workshops  of  the  city,  and  board  in  the  establishment  during  the 
five  or  six  years  of  their  apprenticeship, — the  girls  are  instructed  in  all 
kinds  of  feminine  occcupation.  Day  pupils  are  also  admitted  to  the 
school  of  the  institution,  without  any  charges.  The  city  of  Turin  sup- 
ports at  its  own  expense  some  pupils  in  the  institution.  Other  provinces 
follow  this  example.  This  institution  trains  teachers  for  similar  schools  in 
other  parts  of  the  kingdom. 

Other  cities  of  the  kingdom  abound  in  similar  institutions.  Many  of 
them  are  under  the  care  of  religious  sisterhoods  and  voluntary  associa- 
tions, and  are  supported  by  endowments  and  annual  contributions. 

Among  the  technical  or  special  schools  may  be  mentioned  the  Correc- 
tional and  Reformatory  School  for  young  detenues,  two  miles  out  of  Turin. 
It  is  organized  and  managed  substantially  after  the  plan  of  Parkhurst  Prison 
in  England,  and  the  State  Reform  School  at  Westborough,  Mass.  There 
are  over  300  inmates,  divided  into  four  sections,  mostly  employed  in  gar- 
dening and  in  mechanical  trades  closely  associated  with  agriculture  and 
common  life,  such  as  carpentering,  tailoring,  &c.  The  construction  and 
internal  management  of  this  Reformatory  has  led  to  the  improvement 
of  the  prisons  and  prison  discipline  of  the  kingdom  generally.  There  is 
also  at  Turin  a  HOUSE  OF  CORRECTION,  which  is  both  a  Prison  and  a  Hos- 
pital, supported  by  the  government  for  criminal  and  abandoned  women; 
a  House  of  Charitable  JRefuge,  supported  by  private  benevolence  for  the 
same  class  of  women  desirous  of  entering  on  a  better  life.  Associated 
with  these  institutions  there  is  a  Patronage  Society,  to  assist  discharged 
inmates  of  the  reformatory  school  in  finding  employment. 

From  this  survey  of  institutions  of  secondary  including  special  instruc- 
tion, it  is  evident  that  the  government  of  Sardinia  is  behind  no  European 
State  in  assisting  the  development  of  the  industrial  resources  of  the 
country,  while  it  at  the  same  time  provides  for  universal  elementary  in- 
struction, and  the  demands  of  higher  learning  and  science.  Quite  re- 
cently the  government  has  divided  the  technical  or  special  schools  into 
two  classes : — the  first  having  a  course  of  three,  and  the  second  of  two 
years ;  the  last  having  two  sections,  one  commercial  and  the  other  indus- 
trial, so  as  to  meet  the  wants  of  different  pupils,  and  different  localities. 
The  government  also  distributes  an  annual  subsidy  of  seventy  thousand 
francs  among  these  schools,  for  the  special  benefit  of  the  teachers. 

The  examination,  which  leads  the  pupils  from  the  secondary  schools 
to  the  university,  is  called  the  examination  of  Magistero,  and  constitutes 
the  first  degree  on  which  the  university  bestows  a  diploma. 

The  diploma  is  given  under  the  control  and  direction  of  the  faculties 


SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  31 

of  letters  and  philosophy,  and  of  physical  and  mathematical  sciences ; 
which  are  represented  by  special  committees,  each  of  which  consists  of 
three  members,  of  whom  one  at  least  must  be  an  ordinary  professor  of 
the  faculty.  The  other  members  are  annually  appointed  by  the  minister 
of  public  instruction,  selected  from  the  doctors  of  the  same  faculties. 
These  committees  in  the  university  of  Turin  can  not  be  less  than  three 
for  each  subject  of  examination.  The  examination  consists  of  three 
different  subjects ;  two  scientific  and  one  literary,  which  embrace  all  the 
subjects  of  the  secondary  instruction  of  the  State  colleges.  The  first  sci- 
entific examination  embraces  questions  in  logic,  metaphysics,  arithmetic, 
algebra,  and  geometry ;  the  second,  questions  in  ethics,  and  physical  sci- 
ence, which  are  drawn  by  lot  from  the  prescribed  programmes,  and  an- 
swered orally.  The  literary  examination  is  written  and  oral.  The  written 
consists  of  a  Latin  and  an  Italian  composition,  on  two  themes  drawn  by  lot 
from  six,  which  have  been  proposed  by  the  president  of  the  faculty. 
For  each  of  these  compositions  three  hours  are  allowed  to  the  pupils,  and 
in  this  time  they  must  write  their  exercises  under  the  inspection  of  an 
assistant,  and  without  aid  of  any  books,  except  the  dictionaries.  The 
oral  examination  lasts  one  hour,  and  is  on  the  compositions  and  on  ques- 
tions suggested  by  them,  on  the  interpretation  of  Latin  and  Italian  writ- 
ers, and  on  questions  on  history,  according  to  the  programme.  The 
oral  examinations  are  made  with  open  doors,  and  the  public  can  attend 
them.  These  examinations  take  place  twice  during  the  year ;  viz. :  forty 
days  before  the  closing  of  the  university,  and  in  the  day  after  its  open- 
ing, for  the  succeeding  twenty  days.  The  programmes  of  the  examina- 
tions are  in  their  substance  the  same  as  of  the  instruction,  but  are  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  embrace  it  in  twenty-five  numbers,  each  of  which  compre- 
hends many  questions.  These  programmes  are  upon  the  following  sub- 
jects: 1,  logic  and  metaphysics;  2,  ethics;  3,  arithmetic,  algebra,  and 
geometry ;  4,  physical  science ;  5,  ancient  history ;  6,  modern  history  ; 

7,  geography. 

The  Latin  authors  studied  in  the  Secondary  Schools,  and  on  which  an 
examination  is  held  for  the  degree  of  Magistero  are, — 

1.  Cato — DeReRustica.  2.  Cicero — Orationes  Selccta.  3.  Cicero — Quxstiones  Aca- 
demics et  Tusculante.  4.  Cicero — De  Natura  Deorum.  5.  Cicero — De  Legibus  et  de 
Republica.  6.  Sallustius— Bellum  Catilinanum.  7.  Sallustius— Bellum  Jugurthinvm. 

8.  Livius — Historiarum,   lib.    1,   No.    3.     9.  Livius — Ex  aliis   Historiarum  libris.     10. 
Tacitus— Annales,  lib.   1.     Historic,  lib.    1.     11.  Tacitus— Agricola.     Germania.     12. 
Plinius  Secundus—  Epistolae.  13.  Plautus—  Trimtmmus,\ib.2.  14-Terentius— .Ercerpta. 
15.  Lucretius— De  Rerum  Natura.     16.  Catullus— Excerpta.     17.  Tibullus.  et  Proper- 
tius— Excerpta.      18.  Virgilius— Bucolica—  Georgica.      19.  Virgilius— ^Eneidos,  6—12. 
20.  Virgilius— JEneidos,  1—6.    21.  Horatius— Carmina.     22.  Horatius—  Epodon—  Sa- 
tirce.     23.    Horatius—  Epistola  de   Arts  Poetica.     24.  Ovidius— Metamorphosan,  1—3. 
25.  Ovidius — Excerpta,  Heroidum — Fastorum — Tristium  ex  Ponto. 

The  Italian  writers  are : 

1.  Dino  Compagni—  Cronaca  Fiorentina.  2.  G.Boccaccio — Dccmnerone,  Vita  di  Dan- 
te, Fiammetta,  and  Filocopo.  3.  A.  Pandolfini — Del  buon  governo  della  famtglia.  4. 
N.  Machiavelli — Storie  Florentine,  Discorsi  sulla  prima  Deca.  5.  P.  Bcinbo — Lettere, 
Storie  Veneziane.  6.  F.  Guicciardini—  Storia  d'  Italia.  7.  A.  Firenzuola—  Narrazioni 
tratte  dalle  sue  opere.  8.  A.  Caro.  Lettere.  9.  Della  Casa.  10.  G.  Galilei—  Opere. 
11.  F.  Redi— Lettre.  12.  P.  Segneri— Descrizimii  e  Narrazioni.  13,  14,  15.  Dante 
Alighieri— Divina  Commedia.  16.  F.  Petrarca—  Sonetti,  Canzoni  Trionfo  della  Morte. 
17.  A.  Poliziano— Poesie  Liriche,  Orfeo,  Stanze.  18.  L.  Ariosto—  Orlando  Fnnoso. 
19.  F.  Berni—  Orlando  Innamorato.  20.  F.  Tasso—  Gerusalemme  -iberata.  21.  G 


32  SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

Chiabrera — Canzoni ;  A.  Guidi — La  Fortuna.  22.  G.  Gozzi — Sermoni  ;  G.  Parini — 
Liriche,  Giorni.  23.  V.  Alfieri — Saul,  Polinice,  Oreste.  24.  U.  Foscolo — I  Sepolcri. 
25.  V.Monti — La  bellezza  del?  Universe.  Liriche. 

III.       SUPERIOR   INSTRUCTION. 

UNIVERSITIES. — There  are  in  the  Kingdom  four  universities;  in  Turin, 
Genoa,  Cagliari  and  Sassari,  the  two  latter  in  the  island  of  Sardinia.  We 
shall  speak  only  of  the  university  of  Turin,  that  being  the  most  complete 
in  its  organization,  the  highest  in  scope  of  instruction,  the  most  important 
institution  of  the  country,  and  the  model  of  all  the  others.  Indeed  the 
university  of  Turin  may  claim  a  prominent  place  among  the  institutions 
of  Europe,  and  in  Italy  takes  rank  with  those  of  Pavia,  Padua,  Pisa,  and 
Bologna. 

The  university  of  Turin  was  founded  in  1405  by  Louis  of  Savoy, 
Prince  of  Piedmont.  In  1412  it  obtained  its  rights  and  privileges  from 
the  Emperor  Sigismond,  and  in  1424  Amedeus  VIII.  organized  a  Coun- 
cil of  direction  of  the  university,  composed  of  the  governor-general,  and 
three  other  members,  who  were  called  Reformers,  (Riformatori.)  Some 
years  after  it  was  transferred  to  Chieri,  on  account  of  the  wars  of  that 
time ;  then  again,  from  Chieri  to  Savigliano,  and  in  1436  restored  to  Tu- 
rin. Emmanuel  Philibert  in  1516  gave  new  life  to  the  institution,  reform- 
ed the  council  of  direction,  and  established  separate  faculties.  Still 
further  improvements  were  made  by  Victor  Amedeus  II.  to  whom  Pied- 
mont owes  in  no  small  degree  its  present  welfare  and  strength.  He  built 
the  magnificent  palace  of  the  university,  called  to  it  the  illustrious  profes- 
sors from  other  parts  of  Italy,  from  France  and  other  countries,  founded 
the  college  of  the  provinces  for  the  support  and  education  of  poor  and  tal- 
ented pupils,  and  established  the  botanic  garden.  Charles  Emmanuel  III. 
was  not  less  eager  in  promoting  the  prosperity  of  the  institution,  promul- 
gating a  code  of  academic  laws,  which,  for  its  time,  was  the  most  complete 
in  Europe ;  and  which  was  modified  and  improved  by  Charles  Albert, 
who  created  many  chairs,  built  the  magnificent  new  anatomic  theater, 
enriched  the  botanic  garden  and  museums,  and  founded  a  new  era  of 
national  independence,  freedom,  and  of  scientific  glory  in  the  annals  of 
public  instruction  in  Sardinia.  His  son,  the  present  king  Victor  Emman- 
uel II.  has  shown  himself  a  worthy  successor  of  the  founder  of  the  free 
institutions  of  the  country,  by  placing  Sardinia  at  the  head  of  the  nation- 
al party  of  Italy,  sustaining  before  European  diplomacy  the  rights  and 
the  independence  of  the  nation,  emancipating  the  country  from  the  relics 
of  ancient  despotism,  and  maintaining  with  religious  affection  the  politi- 
cal constitution  of  the  country,  and  improving  in  every  way  the  ma- 
terial as  well  as  the  educational  condition  of  the  people ;  arid  especially 
in  increasing  the  splendor  and  raising  the  standing  of  the  university  of 
the  capital  of  his  kingdom. 

Many  celebrated  scholars  have  from  the  beginning  given  honor  to  its 
name,  among  whom  we  may  mention  CARA,  who  lived  in  the  15th  cen- 
tury, a  lawyer,  as  well  as  a  Latin  scholar  of  great  celebrity,  who  attract- 
ed to  his  lectures  distinguished  audiences,  not  only  from  every  part  of 


SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  3O 

Italy,  but  even  from  France,  Spain,  and  Germany.  In  the  16th  century 
CUJACIUS,  that  miracle  of  legal  erudition,  left  Toulouse,  his  native  country, 
and  repaired  to  this  university.  In  the  same  century  and  in  the  same 
institution,  Argentieri  taught  medical  science,  and  Benedetti  mathe- 
matical astronomy.  THESAURO  in  the  17th  century  was  celebrated  among 
Latin  scholars ;  in  the  18th,  the  university  could  boast  of  a  GERDIL 
in  moral  philosophy,  of  ALCASIO  and  BONO  in  jurisprudence,  of  CIGNA  in 
anatomy  and  physiology,  of  BERTRANDI,  BKUGNONE  and  PENCHIENATI  in  Sur- 
gery, of  DONATI,  the  botanist,  who  by  his  extensive  travels  in  Asia,  en- 
riched the  garden  of  the  university  with  many  precious  treasures ;  of  • 
ALLIONI,  who  proposed  a  new  classification  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  of 
MICIIELLOTTI,  celebrated  in  hydraulics,  and  of  BECCARIA  who  divided  with 
Franklin  the  laurels  of  the  discoveries  of  electricity.  In  the  present  cen- 
tury, BARDI  acquired  an  European  fame  for  his  high  attainments  in 
Hebrew  literature  and  in  sacred  history ;  ALARDI,  GRID  is,  and  BESSONE  were 
celebrated  in  jurisprudence  ;  GIULIO  discovered  muscles  in  plants  ;  RO- 
LANDO developed  a  new  theory  of  the  structure  of  the  brain ;  BALBI  fol- 
lowed with  devoted  zeal  the  study  of  botany ;  VASSALLI  EANDI  showed 
himself  a  worthy  pupil  of  Bcccaria ;  BONELLI  and  BORSON  enriched  the 
zoologic  and  mineralogic  museums ;  BONVICINO  and  GIOBERT  acquired 
great  reputation  in  chemistry,  and  BIDONE  in  mathematics ;  finally  the 
names  of  LAGRANGE,  ALFIERI,  BERARDI,  CHARLES  BOTTA,  GIOBERTI,  CAE- 
SAR BALBO,  SCIOLLA,  TARDITI,  BOUCHERON,  &c.,  who  either  received  their 
scientific  education  at  the  university,  or  presided  over  some  branches  of 
its  instruction,  would  be  sufficient  to  raise  that  institution  to  an  equal 
standing  with  the  most  celebrated  universities  of  Europe.  We  do  not 
speak  of  the  living  professors,  among  whom  are  many  names  of  great  re- 
pute, in  theology,  jurisprudence,  medical  and  surgical  science,  philosophy 
and  letters,  physics  and  mathematics. 

The  palace  of  the  university  built  in  1714,  according  to  the  design  of 
RICCA,  stands  on  the  widest  and  most  beautiful  thoroughfare  of  the  city, 
the  great  street  of  the  Po,  which  is  adorned  on  both  sides  with  wide  and 
lofty  arcades,  ending  at  each  extremity  with  a  wide  square,  looking  on 
one  side  toward  the  old  castle,  which  stands  alone  in  the  middle  of  its 
square,  and  on  the  other  to  the  picturesque  hills,  which  overlook  the 
city.  The  palace  has  within  a  court  surrounded  by  arcades,  divided  by 
columns  which  support  above  another  gallery  of  the  same  style,  as  the  ar- 
cades below.  In  the  walls  of  these  are  many  Roman  inscriptions,  statues, 
and  bas-reliefs,  discovered  in  Piedmont,  and  which  have  been  describ- 
ed by  Scipione  Maffei  and  other  celebrated  antiquaries.  On  the  arcades 
above  are  a  marble  group  representing  fame  chaining  time,  and  four  urns 
representing  the  seasons,  which  were  presented  to  the  university  by  Vic- 
tor Emmanuel  I.  The  imposing  staircase  is  adorned  with  marble  vases, 
and  ornamented  with  sculpturing.  All  the  interior  of  the  University  is 
grand  and  magnificent,  and  admirably  fitted  for  its  objects. 

The  University  consists  of  five  faculties, — THEOLOGY,  JURISPRUDENCE, 
MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY,  BELLES-LETTRES  AND  PHILOSOPHY,  PHYSICAL  AND 


g4.  SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

MATHEMATICAL  SCIENCES.  Each  faculty  is  composed  of  the  professors, 
and  of  the  Collegiate  Doctors,  and  it  is  represented  by  a  Council  which  is 
formed  of  the  president  of  the  faculty,  of  three  professors,  and  of  two 
doctors,  all  of  whom  are  elected  by  ballot,  by  the  members  of  the  faculty 
itself.  The  faculty  of  belles-lettres  and  philosophy  is  divided  into  two 
classes,  one  of  belles-lettres  and  one  of  philosophy.  The  faculty  of  phy- 
sical and  mathematical  sciences  is  also  divided  into  two  classes,  of  phy- 
ical  and  mathematic  science. 

The  Councils  of  the  faculties  have  the  immediate  direction  of  the 
instruction,  which  belongs  to  each  of  them  :  over  these  presided 
until  lately  a  Council  of  the  university,  to  which  the  general  admin- 
istration and  direction  of  the  institution  belonged.  This  council  was 
composed  of  eight  members;  the  president  was  appointed  by  the 
government,  of  the  other  seven  counselors,  five  were  elected  from 
five  lists;  each  of  three  professors,  which  were  made  by  ballot  by 
each  faculty,  and  the  two  others  were  selected  by  the  government, 
among  the  most  distinguished  men  either  in  the  scientific  or  lit- 
erary department.  This  council  was  entrusted  with  the  execution  of  the 
scholastic  laws  and  with  the  direction  and  advancement  of  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  university.  A  new  law  relating  to  the  administration  of  pub- 
lic instruction,  which  was  a  few  months  ago  adopted  by  the  Parliament, 
modified  this  organization,  and  we  shall  speak  of  it  hereafter.  There  is 
also  a  rector  of  the  university  appointed  from  among  the  professors  by 
the  government,  for  a  term  of  three  years. 

The  faculties  have  a  determined  number  of  collegiate  doctorships,  and 
when  one  of  these  is  vacant,  an  examination  is  opened  in  order  to  fill  it 
Doctors  who  received  the  diploma  of  the  faculty  can  alone  present  them- 
selves to  this  examination,  but  not  before  two  years  of  doctorship.  The 
examination  consists  of  a  written  dissertation  upon  a  subject  drawn  by 
lot,  and  of  a  public  extemporary  lecture;  the  candidate  who  in  the 
contest,  receives  the  approbation  of  the  faculty,  before  being  declared  a 
collegiate  doctor,  is  obliged  to  sustain  a  satisfactory  public  discussion  on 
some  of  his  positions,  which  he  is  required  to  publish  as  an  exposition  of 
the  particular  science.  The  collegiate  doctors  are,  in  connection  with  the 
professors,  the  examiners  of  the  candidates  for  the  memberships  of  the 
colleges,  as  well  as  of  the  students  who  apply  for  the  diploma  of  their 
faculty.  They  are  also  the  members  of  the  committees  appointed  for 
the  examination  of  students  applying  for  admission  to  the  university. 

The  professors  are  appointed  by  the  government,  after  being  proposed 
by  the  supreme  council  of  instruction  ;  as  a  general  rule  they  are  chosen 
among  the  collegiate  doctors,  though  in  some  exceptional  cases  men  of 
high  scientific  reputation,  who  do  not  belong  to  the  university,  may  receive 
the  appointment. 

The  colleges  of  the  faculties  at  present  contain  as  follows  :  1st,  College 
of  theology,  twenty -four  doctors ;  2d,  of  jurisprudence,  twenty-two  ;  3d, 
of  medicine  and  surgery,  twenty -nine ;  4th,  of  belles-lettres  and  philoso- 
phy, a,  class  of  belles-lettres,  ten,  J,  class  of  philosophy,  seven ;  5th, 


SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  35 

of  physical  and  mathematical  sciences,  a,  class  of  physical  sciences,  ten, 
b,  class  of  mathematical  sciences,  nine. 

Some  of  these  doctors  are  appointed  by  the  government,  as  extraordi- 
nary professors  of  the  faculty,  whose  duty  is  to  take  place  of  the  ordina- 
ry professors,  when  prevented  from  lecturing  or  examining. 

There  are  also  attached  to  the  university,  private  teachers  who  are 
called  Ripetitori,  from  whom  the  students  can  receive  private  instruc- 
tion on  the  course.  These  teachers  are  licensed  by  the  council  of  the 
university,  after  being  proposed  by  the  councils  of  the  faculties ;  the 
students,  however,  are  not  obliged  to  follow  these  courses,  and  should 
they  choose  to  follow  them,  they  are  by  no  means  exempted  from  the  course 
of  the  university,  which  is  the  only  one  recognized  as  the  necessary  con- 
dition of  admission  to  the  examinations  and  to  the  doctorships.  The 
private  courses  are  paid  by  the  students  who  wish  to  follow  them,  but 
the  courses  of  the  university,  as  well  as  of  the  colleges,  are  entirely  free. 
The  students,  however,  are  obliged  to  pay  to  the  public  treasure  a  fee 
for  their  examination,  which  varies  according  to  the  different  faculties. 
From  the  payment  of  these  fees  all  pupils  are  exempted,  who  prove  the 
inability  of  their  parents  to  pay  them. 

In  order  to  be  admitted  to  the  course  of  a  faculty,  it  is  necessary  for  the 
students  to  present  the  certificate  of  having  completed  all  the  secondary 
courses,  including  that  of  philosophy  ;  another,  of  having  passed  satis- 
factory all  the  examinations  of  magisterio.  They  then  declare  the  fac- 
ulty, of  which  they  intend  to  follow  the  courses ;  after  which  they  are 
obliged  to  attend  the  lectures  prescribed  for  those  courses,  to  obtain 
every  quarter  a  certificate  of  their  attendance  from  each  professor,  and  to 
pass  an  annual  examination  upon  the  subjects  of  the  programme. 

The  following  are  the  courses  connected  with  each  faculty  ;  to  each 
course  is  appointed  a  professor. 

FACULTY  OF  THEOLOGY.  1st,  Biblical  theology ;  2d,  Bible  and  the  ele- 
ments of  Hebrew  ;  3d,  Ecclesiastical  History  ;  4th,  Dogmatic  theology ; 
5th,  Speculative  theology ;  6th,  Sacraments ;  7th,  Moral  theology ;  8th, 
Art  of  preaching.  The  course  continues  through  five  years,  and  the  sub- 
jects are  arranged  in  the  following  order  :  1st  year,  Biblical  and  Dogmati- 
cal theology  ;  2$  and  3d  years,  Moral  theology,  Speculative  theology,  and 
Sacraments;  4th  and  5th  years,  Moral  theology,  Speculative  theology,  Sa- 
craments, and  Bible.  The  students,  who  propose  to  contend  for  the  three 
prizes  established  by  the  government  for  the  best  written  solution  of  the- 
ological questions,  attend  the  lectures  of  an  additional  course,  which  is 
of  two  years,  and  embraces  ecclesiastical  history,  the  art  of  preaching, 
elements  of  Hebrew,  and  exegesis  of  the  Bible. 

The  bishops  have  the  right  to  establish  theological  schools  in  their  sem- 
inaries ;  but  the  instruction  received  in  those  seminaries  can  not  give  to 
the  students  the  privilege  of  presenting  themselves  to  the  examination  for 
receiving  the  Doctorship  of  Divinity  from  the  university,  unless  the  pro- 
fessors of  theology  have  been  appointed  by  the  government,  and  unless 
these  professors  follow  the  programmes  and  the  general  regulations  of  the 


36  SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

university.  In  this  case  the  professors  of  the  seminaries  receive  their 
salary  from  the  government.  The  diploma  of  doctorship  in  divinity  is 
a  necessary  condition  for  obtaining  the  incumbency  of  many  ecclesiasti- 
cal benefices  and  employments,  to  which  the  government  has  the  right 
of  nomination,  and  as  this  diploma  can  be  only  granted  by  the  universi- 
ty, it  follows  that  a  great  part  of  the  clergy  are  obliged  to  pass  through 
this  course  in  one  of  the  universities  of  the  state.  During  late  years, 
however,  the  church  having  entered  into  an  open  opposition  to  the  state, 
on  account  of  some  reforms  introduced  into  the  political  institutions  of 
the  country,  the  bishops  became  reluctant  to  allow  the  students  of  divin- 
ity to  follow  the  course  of  the  university,  so  that  from  recent  statistics 
this  faculty  appears  almost  deserted. 

The  following  is  the  catalogue  of  the  professors  of  the  theological  fac- 
ulty of  the  university  of  Turin,  with  the  subjects  of  their  lectures  for 
the  scholastic  year,  1856-7.  (November — June.) 

PABATO  FELICE,  member  of  the  Council  of  the  University,  in  Moral  Theology,  will 
lecture  on  human  actions,  on  moral  law  and  on  the  laws  of  the  Decalogue  and  of  the  Church, 
at  9  o'clock,  every  day. 

SEEAFINO  ANGELO,  in  Speculative  Theology,  will  lecture  on  God  and  his  attributes, 
at  10  o'clock,  every  day. 

GHIRINGHELLO  GIUSEPPE,  member  of  the  Supreme  Council  of  public  instruction,  in 
the  Holy  Bible,  will  lecture  on  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  Epistles,  and  Revelations,  at  3 
o  clock, until  April ;  then  at  half  past  three,  every  day.  He  will  also  teach  Hebrew  and 
Biblical  Exegesis,  every  day  at  4  o'clock,  until  April,  then  at  half  past  four. 

BANAUDI  CASIMIRO,  will  teach  Biblical  Theology,  at  10  o'clock,  every  day. 

SAVIO  CARLO  LUIGI  will  teach  Dogmatical  Theology,  at  11  o'clock,  every  day. 

BARON  E  FRANCESCO,  in  Ecclesiastical  History,  will  lecture  on  the  History  of  the  Church 
from  Constantine  to  Charlemagne,  on  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays,  at  12 
o'clock. 

N.  N.  will  teach  the  Art  of  preaching,  on  Tuesdays,  Thursdays,  and  Saturdays,  at  12 
o'clock. 

N.  N.  in  Speculative  Theology  ;  will  lecture  on  Sacraments  in  general,  and  on  Baptism 
and  on  Confirmation,  at  11  o'clock,  every  day. 

FACULTY  OF  JURISPRUDENCE. — The  course  of  this  faculty  extends  through 
five  years,  and  consists  of  the  following  thirteen  Chan's.  1st,  History  of 
Jurisprudence ;  2d,  Institutions  of  Roman  Law ;  3d,  Ecclesiastical  Law ; 
4th,  Roman  Law ;  5th,  Civil  Law ;  6th,  Penal  Law ;  7th,  Political  Econo- 
my ;  8th,  Constitutional  Law ;  9th,  Commercial  Law ;  10th,  Judiciary 
Law  and  Theory  of  Evidences;  llth,  Administrative  Law  ;  12fch,  Inter- 
national Law ;  13th,  Philosophy  of  Jurisprudence.  These  subjects  are 
divided  through  the  course  in  this  way :  1st  year,  History  of  Jurispru- 
dence, Institutions  of  Roman  Law,  Ecclesiastical  Law.  Id  year,  Ecclesi- 
astical Law,  Roman  Law,  Civil  Law,  Penal  Law,  Political  Economy. 
3d  year,  Roman  Law,  Civil  Law,  Penal  Law,  Political  Economy,  and 
Constitutional  Law.  4th  year,  Roman  Law,  Civil  Law,  Constitutional 
Law,  Commercial  Law,  Judiciary  Law.  5th  year,  Commercial  Law,  Judi- 
ciary Law,  Administrative  Law,  International  Law,  Philosophy  of  Juris- 
prudence. 

No  one  can  obtain  the  title  of  lawyer,  or  practice  the  legal  profession 
or  plead  any  cause  before  any  court  of  the  country,  or  be  appointed  in 
any  place  of  the  judiciary  department,  without  having  received  thfe  diplo- 
ma of  Doctorship  in  this  faculty.  This  diploma  opens  also  the  most  part 
of  the  official  employments,  both  in  the  executive  and  in  the  administra 


SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  3^ 

tive  departments,  and  gives  a  better  chance  for  election  to  the  legislative 
body. 

In  order  to  afford  a  better  opportunity  to  the  students  of  this  faculty 
who  reside  in  the  most  distant  parts  of  the  country,  there  is  a  school  of 
jurisprudence  in  Chambery  and  in  Nice  for  the  students  born  in  those 
provinces.  The  programme,  however,  of  these  schools  does  not  exceed 
the  subjects  which  are  taught  in  the  first  year  of  the  course,  after  which 
it  is  required  of  the  students  to  continue  their  course  at  the  university. 
Thus  three  professors  deliver  lectures  in  each  of  those  schools,  according 
to  the  programme  of  the  university  and  under  the  direction  of  the  faculty 
of  Turin,  and  of  the  council  of  that  university.  In  every  city,  besides, 
which  is  at  the  head  of  a  provincial  department,  there  is  a  school  of 
Civil  and  of  Judiciary  Law,  which  prepares  its  students  for  the 
professions  of  public  notaries  and  advocates.  This  course  extends 
through  two  years  ;  in  the  first  of  which  they  are  taught  the  elements 
of  civil  law,  in  the  second  the  judiciary  law,  in  causes  both  civil  and 
criminal. 

The  professor  of  the  history  of  jurisprudence,  after  having  given  to  his 
students  the  fundamental  ideas  which  are  necessary  to  understand  this 
part  of  their  course,  commences  with  the  origin  of  the  Koman  law  and 
follows  it  through  its  decline  at  the  fall  of  the  empire  ;  and  treats  of  the 
different  laws  promulgated  by  the  succeeding  rulers,  of  the  most  useful 
principles  of  the  feudal  system,  of  the  canonical  law,  of  the  contests  be- 
tween the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authority,  and  of  the  statutes  of  the 
ancient  commons,  and  pursues  the  genesis  and  the  changes  of  our  legis- 
lation to  the  present  time.  In  the  course  of  his  history  the  professor  is 
required  to  point  out  the  sources  of  law,  and  the  causes  of  progress  of 
justice,  and  of  other  phases  of  jurisprudence. 

The  professors  of  the  institutions  of  Roman  law,  and  of  Roman  law  it- 
self, expound  compendiously  the  parts  of  that  law,  which  do  not  enter 
into  Sardinian  legislation,  and  dwell  upon  the  other  parts,  which  are  the 
foundation  of  the  law  of  the  country. 

In  the  first  year  of  the  course  on  ecclesiastical  law,  the  lectures  treat, 
1st,  of  the  church  and  its  authority ;  2d,  of  marriage.  In  the  second 
year  their  subjects  embrace  the  doctrine  of  ecclesiastical  benefices.  The 
study  of  penal  code  is  divided  into  two  parts,  in  the  first  of  which  the 
general  theory  is  taught,  in  the  second  special  applications  to  different 
offenses.  In  this  last  part  the  professor  dwells  especially  upon  offenses 
against  public  faith,  and  against  the  peace  and  property  of  families  and 
individuals.  The  lectures  on  commercial  law  embrace  all  the  parts  of 
this  law,  and  include  the  maritime  law.  The  course  of  judiciary  law  is 
divided  into  two  parts,  accordingly  as  it  refers  to  civil  or  criminal  pro- 
ceedings, and  includes  in  both  parts  the  theory  of  evidences. 

'We  give  here  the  catalogue  of  the  professors  of  this  faculty,  and  their 
programme  for  the  present  year : 

VACCHINO  FRANCESCO,  in  Commercial  Law,  will  lecture  on  it,  on  Tuesdays, 
Thursdays,  and  Saturdays,  at  10  o'clock. 


38  SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

NUITZ  GIOVANNI  NEPOMUCENO,  member  of  the  Council  of  the  University,  and  Rector 
of  the  University,  in  Roman  Law}  will  lecture  on  Obligations,  Mondays,  Wednesdays  and 
Fridays,  at  8  o'clock. 

CESANO  GASPARE,  extraordinary  member  of  the  Supreme  Council  of  instruction,  in 
Civil  Law,  will  lecture  on  the  Contract  of  Marriage,  on  subsequent  rights  in  both  parties,  and 
on  the  contract  of  partnership,  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays,  at  10  o'clock. 

PATERI  ILARIO  FILIBERTO,  in  Ecclesiastical  Law,  will  lecture  on  the  Church,  and 
on  its  authority,  and  onMarriage,  Tuesdays,  Wednesdays,  and  Saturdays,  at  8  o'clock. 

ALBINI  PIETRO,  in  the  Philosophy  of  Jurisprudence  ;  after  having  given  the  theory 
of  juridical  law,  will  lecture  on  the  theory  of  juridical  rational  law,  and  on  rational  princi- 
ples of  family  right,  and  of  public  right,  Mondays,  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  at  10  o'clock. 

GENINA  LUIOI,  in  Penal  Law,  after  having  given  the  general  ideas  of  offense,  of  impu- 
tation, and  of  punishment,  will  lecture  on  offenses  against  public  faith,  and  on  offenses 
against  the  peace  and  the  order  of  families  and  of  individuals,  Tuesdays,  Thursdays,  and 
Saturdays,  at  9  o'clock. 

PESCATORE  MATTEO,  in  Judiciary  Law,  will  expound  the  principal  parts  of  criminal 
proceeding,  and  will  give  its  theory  of  evidences,  Tuesdays,  Thursdays,  and  Saturdays,  at 
9  o'clock. 

MELEGARI  LUIGI  AMEDEO,  in  Constitutional  Law,  will  give  an  historical  introduction 
on  representative  institutions,  after  which  he  will  lecture  on  the  rights  of  citizens  and  on  their 
guarantees,  Tuesdays,  Thursdays,  and  Saturdays,  at  11  o'clock. 

BUNIVA  GIUSEPPE,  in  Civil  Law,  will  lecture  on  Testamentary  Successions,  Mon- 
days, Wednesdays,  and  Fridays,  at  9  o'clock. 

FERRARA  FRANCESCO,  in  PoliticalEconomy ;  will  deliver  lectures  on  it,  Tuesdays, 
Thursdays,  and  Saturdays,  at  10  o'clock. 

LIONE  ANTONIO,  in  Administrative  Law,  will  lecture  on  it,  Mondays,  Wednesdays, 
and  Fridays,  at  9  o'clock. 

MANCINI  PASQUALE  STANISLAO,  in  International  Law  ;  will  lecture  mi  the  Elements 
of  international,  public,  national  and  positive  law,  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays, 
at  11  o'clock. 

ANSELMI  GIORGIO,  will  lecture  on  the  Institutions  of  Roman  law,  every  day,  at  10 
o'clock. 

DEHARGHERITA  ALESSANDRO,  in  the  History  of  Jurisprudence;  will  lecture  on  it, 
every  day,  at  9  o'clock. 

AVONDO  CARLO  and  GASTALDETTI  CELESTINO,  extraordinary  professors,  will  take 
the  plane  of  the  above  professors,  in  case  of  their  being  prevented  from  lecturing. 

FACULTY  OF  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY. — This  faculty  possesses  nineteen 
chairs,  and  its  course  continues  through  six  years.  It  is  strictly  prohib- 
ited by  the  law  of  the  country  to  exercise  the  profession  of  medicine  or 
surgery,  without  having  obtained  the  diploma  of  doctorship  from  one  of 
the  universities  of  the  state.  This  diploma  is  only  bestowed  upon  the 
accomplishment  of  the  full  course  of  the  faculty,  and  of  passing  the  ex- 
aminations which  are  prescribed  by  law.  The  same  provision  is  enforced 
in  all  the  faculties  of  the  university  for  the  exercise  of  the  professions 
relative  to  them.  1st  chair,  Chemistry ;  2d,  theoretical  and  practical 
Pharmacy,  and  toxicologic  Chemistry ;  3d,  Mineralogy ;  4th,  Botany ;  5th, 
Zoology ;  6th,  Anatomy  ;  7th,  Physiology  ;  8th,  medical  and  surgical  In- 
stitutions ;  9th,  Materia  medica  ;  10th  and  llth,  theoretical  and  practical 
Medicine;  12th  and  13th,  theoretical  and  practical  Surgery;  14th,  theo- 
retical Obstetrics  and  obstetrical  Clinic;  15th,  surgical  Operations  and  op- 
erative Clinic  with  anatomical  and  surgical  exercitations  at  the  hospital ; 
IGth,  Hygiene  and  public  health;  17th,  Legal  medicine  and  Toxicology; 
18th,  Clinic  of  mental  diseases ;  19th,  pathological  Anatomy.  The  order  of 
the  course  is  the  following  :  1st  year,  Chemistry,  Mineralogy,  Botany, 
Zoology,  Anatomy.  2d  year,  Chemistry,  Anatomy,  Physiology,  medical 
and  surgical  Institutions,  theoretical  and  practical  Pharmacy,  and  toxicolo- 
gic Chemistry.  3d  year,  anatomical  Exercitations,  Anatomy,  Materia 
medica,  theoretical  and  practical  Medicine,  theoretical  and  practical  Sur- 
gery. 4th  year,  anatomical  Exercitations,  Materia  medica,  theoretical 


SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  39 

and  practical  Medicine,  theoretical  and  practical  Surgery,  medical  Clinic, 
Hygiene  and  public  health.  5th  year,  theoretical  and  practical  Medicine, 
theoretical  and  practical  Surgery,  theoretical  Obstetrics  and  obstetrical 
Clinic,  surgical  Operations  and  operative  Clinic,  medical  Clinic,  pathologi- 
cal Anatomy,  exercitations  of  operations  and  bandages.  QtTi  year,  surgi- 
cal operations  and  operative  Clinic,  medical  Clinic,  Clinic  of  mental  diseases, 
legal  Medicine  and  Toxicology. 

The  first  year  of  the  course  can  be  pursued  in  Chambery  and  in  Nice, 
where  four  professors  in  the  former  city,  and  three  in  the  latter  deliver 
lectures  on  the  prescribed  subjects. 

All  the  students  are  obliged  to  complete  the  entire  course  of  the  facul- 
ty, and  to  obtain  the  diploma  of  Doctorship,  both  in  medicine  and  in  sur- 
gery, whether  they  intend  to  practice  the  one  or  the  other,  or  both. 
But  those,  who  intend  to  devote  themselves  to  the  exercise  of  the  obstet- 
ric art,  are  obliged  to  attend  for  six  months  the  obstetric  clinic  at  the 
maternity  hospital,  and  to  pass  a  practical  examination  on  that  art. 
Women,  who  intend  to  follow  the  profession  of  midwives,  are  obliged  to 
frequent  the  same  clinic  and  to  pass  the  same  examination.  In  the  cities 
of  Novara,  Vercelli,  Voghera  and  Chambery,  there  is  a  free  practical 
school  of  obstetrics  for  women ;  and  the  students  of  the  school  of  Nova- 
ra are  supported  by  the  municipalities  of  the  townships,  which  send  them 
to  that  school. 

There  is  a  class  of  students,  who  intend  to  limit  their  practice  to  bleed 
ing.  In  order  to  obtain  the  approbation  for  this  practice,  they  are  obliged 
to  pass  through  a  course  of  two  years,  in  the  first  of  which  they 
attend  the  lectures  of  anatomy,  in  the  second  of  anatomy,  physiology, 
and  medical  and  surgical  institutions.  They  must  also  spend  a  year  in 
the  practice  of  their  art,  under  a  licensed  phlebotomist,  after  which  they 
are  allowed  to  present  themselves  for  a  final  examination,  which,  if  suc- 
cessful, gives  them  the  right  to  have  the  diploma  of  phlebotomy,  and 
to  receive  the  license  of  its  exercise. 

The  following  is  the  catalogue  of  the  faculty  for  the  year  1856-57  : 

RIBERI  ALESSANDRO,  member  of  the  supreme  Council  of  instruction,  in  Operations, 
will  lecture  on  the  principal  surgical  Operations,  at  8  o'clock,  A.  M.,  Tuesdays,  Thurs- 
days, and  Fridays  ;  besides,  he  will  leach  at  the  hospital  of  St.  John  the  operative  Clinic, 
at  half  past  6  every  day. 

PASERO  FRANCESCO,  in  theoretical  and  practical  Surgery  ;  will  lecture  on  Dis- 
eases of  the  Mouth,  in  the  first  four  months,  and  in  the  following  on  Diseases  of  the 
Eyes,  at.  half  past  10,  Tuesdays,  Thursdays,  and  Saturdays.  Besides,  he  will  teach  at 
the  hospital  of  St.  John,  surgical  Clinic,  at  half  past  2,  every  clay. 

BERUTTI  SECONDO  GIOVANNI,  in  Physiology,  will  deliver  lectures  on  general  and 
special  physiology,  and  will  occasionally  perform  experiments  on  living  animals,  at  9 
o'clock,  Tuesdays,  Thursdays,  and  Saturdays. 

GIROLA  LORENZO,  in  theoretical  and  practical  Medicine,  will  lecture  on  Neurosis, 
viz.:  on  Newopachy  and  especially  on  organic  Innervation  of  sensitiveness,  and  of  mobility, 
Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays,  at  half  past  10;  he  will,  also,  at  the  hospital  of  St. 
John,  teach  medical  Clinic,  at  half  past  2,  every  day. 

ALLIPRANDI  MICHELE  LUIGI,*  in  Obstetrics,  will  lecture  on  womb,  pregnancy, 
Orology,  Accouchment,  the  normal  and  abnormal  state  of  new  born  children,  at  half  past  8, 
Mondays,  Wednesdays  and  Saturdays.  He  will  also  give  practical  lessons  on  Obstet- 
ric Clinic,  at  the  Maternity  Hospital,  on  days  and  hours  to  be  fixed  according  to  the 


occasions. 

*  Since  dead. 


40  SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

VIGLIETTI  GIOVANNI  ANTONIO,  in  Hygiene  and  Public  Health,  will  lecture  on  it,  at 
8  o'clock,  Tuesdays,  Thursdays,  and  Saturdays. 

CARMAGNOLA.  PAOLO  ANDREA,  in  theoretical  and  practical  Medicine,  will  lecture 
on  Inflamation  generally,  and  afterward  on  Inflamations  of  the  bowels,  at  8  o'clock, 
Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays  ;  he  will  also  teach  medical  clinic,  at  the  hospital 
of  St.  John,  at  half  past  2,  every  day. 

FIORITO  GIOACHINO,  in  medical  and  surgical  Institutions,  will  lecture  on  Methodology 
and  History  of  medicine,  and  afterward  on  general,  medical  and  surgical  Pathology,  at  half 
past  8,  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays. 

MALINVERNI  SISTO  GKRMANO,  in  pathologic  Anatomy,  will  lecture  on  it,  at  the 
hospital  of  St.  John,  at  three-quarters  past  9,  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays. 

DEMARIA  CARLO,  in  legal  Medicine,  will  lecture  on  it,  and  especially  on  Toxicology, 
at  three-quarters  past  9,  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays. 

MAJOLI  GIACOMO,  in  theoretical  and  practical  Surgery,  will  lecture  on  Inflamations 
and  on  their  consequences,  in  regard  to  surgery,  on  Tumors  generally,  on  organic,  dynamic 
diseases  of  the  bones  and  articulations,  at  a  quarter  past  9,  Tuesdays,  Thursdays,  and 
Saturdays  ;  he  will  also,  at  8  o'clock  at  the  Charity  Hospital  teach  the  Clinic  of  syphi- 
litic diseases,  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Saturdays. 

DEMICHELIS  GIUSEPPE,  in  materia  Medica,  after  having  given  the  General  Principles, 
will  lecture  on  purgative,  anthelmintic,  secretive  and  hyposthenic  Medicaments,  at  naif 
past  9,  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays. 

BONACOSSA  GIOVANNI,  principal  physician  of  the  Royal  Lunatic  Asylum,  in  the 
Clinic  of  mental  diseases,  will  teach  this  Clinic  in  the  said  asylum,  at  half  past  9, 
Tuesdays  and  Saturdays. 

N.  N.  in  anatomy,  in  the  first  five  months  after  having  given  an  Introduction,  he  will 
teach  descriptive  Anatomy  on  the  subject,  at  the  amphitheatre  of  the  hospital  of  St.  John, 
and  in  the  three  last  months  he  will  lecture  on  the  general  Anatomy  of  tissues  of  the  hu- 
man system,  at  three-quarters  past  11,  every  day. 

CONTI  MATTEO,  the  dissector  of  the  anatomical  theatre,  will  take  the  place  of  the 
above  professors,  when  prevented  from  lecturing. 

The  students  of  medical  and  surgical  science  are  trained  in  the  practice 
of  the  profession  in  the  hospitals  of  the  Capital,  of  which  we  shall  give 
here  a  short  sketch  : 

THE  HOSPITAL  OF  ST.  JOHN  THE  BAPTIST  was  founded  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  It  receives  all  medical  and  surgical  patients,  with  the  exception 
of  those  suffering  from  contagious  diseases.  It  has  418  beds,  of  which 
213  are  occupied  by  those  affected  internally,  109  by  external,  and  96  by 
chronic  diseases.  There  are  also  private  rooms  for  individuals,  who  can 
afford  to  pay  moderate  charges.  The  number  of  patients  annually 
received  at  the  hospital  is  between  five  and  six  thousand.  The  two  pro- 
fessors of  the  medical  clinic  have  14  beds  each,  for  the  instruction  of  the 
students,  and  the  professor  of  surgical  clinic  has  6  in  the  hall  of  men, 
and  as  many  in  the  hall  of  women  for  the  same  purpose.  Twenty-one 
students  of  the  faculty  are  selected  among  the  best,  who  assist  the  ordi- 
nary physicians,  and  in  return  receive  either  free  board  or  an  annual  pe- 
cuniary allowance. 

THE  HOSPITAL  OF  SAINTS  MAURICE  AND  LAZARUS  was  founded  in  1572, 
with  the  object  of  treating  those  acute  diseases  which  are  not  contagious. 
It  receives  every  year  about  a  thousand  patients  ;  eight  students  of  the 
university  are  appointed  for  the  service  of  the  hospital  and  the  assistance 
of  the  ordinary  physicians,  and  enjoy  the  same  privileges  of  those  of  the 
hospital  of  St.  John. 

THE  MILITARY  HOSPITAL  OF  THE  DIVISION  OF  TURIN. — Its  object  is  to  re- 
ceive the  sick  soldiers  and  officers,  whose  station  is  in  the  Division  of  Turin. 
It  has  430  beds,  and  affords  the  occasion  of  practical  instruction  to 
those  students,  who  wish  to  become  physicians  and  surgeons  of  the  army. 


SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  41 

For  their  assistance  to  the  hospital  they  receive  also  free  board,  and  are 
obliged  to  follow  the  courses  of  the  university. 

THE  INSTITUTION  AND  THE  HOSPITAL  OF  ST.  Louis  GONZAGA. — It  was 
founded  in  1794,  with  the  object  of  aiding  and  nursing  the  sick  who  could 
not  be  admitted  to  other  hospitals,  on  account  of  the  nature  of  their  dis- 
eases. The  institution  provides  also  with  medical  advice,  visits,  remedies, 
and  comforts  at  their  own  home  those,  who  do  not  wish  to  be  brought  to 
the  hospital.  This  has  200  beds,  and  receives  by  preference  patients 
affected  by  consumption,  cancer,  chronic  dropsy,  scurvy,  and  leprosy. 

THE  MATERNITY  HOSPITAL,  in  which  the  obstetric  clinic  is  established, 
receives  about  six  hundred  patients  a  year.  There  is  also  in  this  hospital 
the  school  for  midwives,  with  eight  or  ten  pupils. 

THE  KOYAL  GENERAL  CHARITY  HOUSE,  of  which  we  spoke  above,  is  the 
seat  of  the  school  for  the  clinic  of  syphilitic  diseases ;  four  students  of  the 
university  are  appointed  to  assist  the  physicians  of  the  hospital,  and  they 
receive  the  same  allowances  as  in  the  other  institutions. 

THE  ROYAL  LUNATIC  ASYLUM  aifords  the  pupils  the  occasion  of  studying 
mental  diseases,  the  clinic  of  which  is  here  practiced.  The  asylum  con- 
tains two  hundred  and  fifty  patients,  of  both  sexes,  and  supports  four 
students  for  their  assistance. 

THE  OPHTHALMIC  DISPENSARY  affords  free  advice,  remedies,  and  cure  to 
the  poor ;  patients  who  can  aftord  it  pay  a  small  sum  for  their  board  and 
lodging.  It  contains  two  hundred  patients. 

THE  ORTHOPEDIC  ESTABLISHMENT  was  founded  in  1823,  with  the  object  of 
curing  the  crippled,  maimed,  and  deformed,  etc.  It  has  acquired  a  great 
reputation,  and  it  is  considered  as  one  of  the  first  establishments  of  the  kind 
in  Europe. 

FACULTY  OP  BELLES-LETTRES  AND  RATIONAL  PHILOSOPHY.  This  faculty 
prepares  doctors  and  professors  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy.  No  one  can 
be  appointed  professor  of  these  departments,  or  allowed  to  teach  either  in 
public  or  private  schools,  if  he  has  not  completed  the  established  courses 
and  obtained  the  diploma  of  Doctorship  from  the  faculty.* 

THE  COURSE  OF  BELLES-LETTRES,  is  given  by  seven  professors,  and  em- 
braces the  following  subjects  :  1st,  Greek  grammar  and  general  Grammar ; 
2d,  Italian  literature ;  3d,  Latin  Literature  ;  4th,  Greek  Literature  ;  5th, 
ancient  History ;  6th,  modern  History ;  *Tth,  Roman  and  Greek  Archaeol- 
ogy. This  course  is  divided  into  four  years ;  in  the  first  year,  the  stu- 
dents are  taught  Greek  and  general  grammar,  Italian  and  Latin  literature, 
and  Roman  Archaeology ;  in  the  second  year,  Italian,  Latin  and  Greek 
literature,  ancient  history,  and  Greek  archaeology.  In  the  third  and 
fourth  years,  Italian,  Latin  and  Greek  literature,  ancient  and  modern 
history. 

THE  COURSE  OF  RATIONAL   PHILOSOPHY  possesses    three  chairs:    1st, 

*  To  the  chairs  of  this  faculty  we  must  add  three  more,  recently  established  by  a  law  of 
the  Parliament,  viz.:  1st,  Philosophy  of  history  ;  2d.  Geography  and  Statistics ;  3d,  French 
literature.    As  the  professors  of  these  chairs  are  not  yet  appointed,  we  can  not  publish  the 
programme  of  these  branches  of  instruction. 
4 


42  SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

Metaphysics ;  2d,  Moral  Philosophy ;  3d,  History  of  the  ancient  Philoso- 
phy. The  students  are  obliged  also  to  attend  the  lectures  on  Italian  and 
Latin  literature,  on  general  Methodology,  on  the  higher  Geometry,  and 
natural  Sciences,  which  are  delivered  by  the  professors  of  other  faculties. 
The  subjects  are  divided  as  follows : 

In  the  first  year,  Metaphysics,  higher  Geometry,  Latin  literature,  Chem- 
istry ;  second  year,  Metaphysics,  History  of  ancient  Philosophy,  physical 
Science,  and  Italian  literature ;  third  year,  Metaphysics,  Moral  Philosophy, 
History  of  Philosophy,  Mineralogy,  Zoology;  fourth  year,  Metaphysics, 
Moral  Philosophy,  History  of  Philosophy,  and  general  Methodology. 

THE  COURSE  OF  METHOD,  which  is  connected  with  this  faculty,  does  not 
intend  to  give  any  diploma  of  Doctorship,  but  only  to  prepare  professors 
for  the  provincial  schools  of  method.  From  these  professors  the  pro- 
vincial inspectors  of  elementary  instruction  are  generally  selected.  The 
course  is  completed  in  two  years;  in  the  first,  the  students  learn  general 
Chemistry,  Mineralogy,  Botany  and  Zoology,  attending  the  lectures  of  the 
professors  of  these  sciences,  and  prepare  themselves  for  an  examination 
on  all  the  subjects, which  enter  into  the  programme  of  the  four  elementa- 
ry classes.  In  the  second  they  attend  the  lectures  on  Pedagogy,  and  on 
Method,  both  general  and  special,  applicable  to  the  elementary  schools. 

With  this  faculty  a  normal  school  is  also  connected,  for  the  preparation 
of  the  professors  of  Latin  grammar.  The  course  is  also  completed  in  two 
years ;  in  the  first,  the  students  attend  the  courses  of  institutions  of 
belles-lettres,  of  Greek  and  general  grammar,  of  ancient  History,  and 
Archeology.  In  the  second,  they  attend  the  lectures  on  Italian  and  Latin 
literature,  on  method  applied  to  the  instruction  of  the  Latin  and  Italian 
languages,  on  ancient  History,  and  Archaeology. 

The  doctors  in  belles-lettres  and  on  philosophy, who  come  from  this  fac- 
ulty, are  appointed  by  the  government  to  the  chairs  of  those  departments 
in  the  royal  or  national  colleges.  Their  salaries  are  paid  by  the  govern- 
ment, and  after  thirty  years  of  employment,  they  are  entitled  to  retire 
with  a  pension  equal  to  their  full  salary.  Their  widows  and  children  un- 
der age  are  also  entitled  to  a  pension.  This  provision  is  applied  to  all  the 
officers  of  the  government,  and  thus  to  all  the  professors  of  the  colleges 
and  of  the  universities. 

The  following  is  the  catalogue  of  the  faculty  for  the  year  1  So  6-7  : 

PARAVIA  ALESSANDRO,*  in  Italian  Literature,  will  lecture  on  the  Pleasure  of  Poetry, 
and  on  differences  between  a  didactic  Poem,  and  a  Treatise ;  he  will  also  continue  the 
critical  history  of  the  tragic  Theatre  from  Trissino  to  Alfieri,  at  12  o'clock,  Mondays  and 
Wednesdays  ;  on  Fridays  the  Students  will  read  their  compositions  in  verse  and  prose,  on 
which  he  will  make  his  critical  observations  ;  and  on  Thursdays,  at  3  o'clock,  he  will  contin- 
ue his  lectures  on  the  History  of  the  country,  from  Count  Amedeus  VII. 

BARUCCHI  FRANCESCO,  member  of  the  supreme  Council  of  instruction,  in  History  and 
Archaeology,  will  lecture  on  Roman  history  and  Archaeology,  on  Mondays,  Wednesdays 
and  Fridays,  at  10  o'clock. 

PRIERI  BARTOLOMEO,  member  of  the  Council  of  the  University,  in  Greek  literature, 
will  explain  in  the  first  three  months  some  historical  passages  of  Xenophon  and  Herodotus  ; 
then  two  Philipics  of  Demosthenes,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  some  passages  of  Homer, 
on  Tuesdays,  Thursdays  and  Saturdays,  at  12  o'clock. 

VALLAURI  TOMMASO,  in  Latin  Literature,  will  lecture  on  the  critical  History  of  Latin 

'  Since  dead. 


SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 


43 


Literature,  from  the  death  of  Augustus  to  the  Emperor  Adrian ;  he  will  also  comment  on  some 
passages  from  the  Histories  of  Tacitus,  from  the  Satires  of  Juvenal,  and  from  the  Roman 
history  of  C.  Vellejus  Paterculus ;  besides, on  one  day  of  the  week  he  will  give  his  crit- 
icism on  the  compositions  of  the  Students,  on  Tuesdays,  Thursdays  and  Saturdays,  at  11 
o'clock. 

DANNA  CASIMIRO,  member  of  the  general  Council  of  the  elementary  schools,  will 
lecture  on  the  Institutions  of  Belles-lettres,  Tuesdays,  Wednesdays,  Fridays,  and  Satur- 
days, at  3  o'clock. 

BONA  BARTOLOMEO,  in  Greek  and  general  Grammar,  will  explain  the  critical  Grammar 


the  Philosophy  of  language,  and  will  apply  the  general  principles  to  the  classical  languages. 

RAYNERI  GIOVANNI  ANTONIO,  member  of  the  general  Council  of  the  elementary 
schools,  in  Methodology,  will  lecture  on  general  Method,  on  Mondays,  Tuesdays,  and 
Saturdays,  at  11  o'clock. 

RICOTTI  ERCOLE,  in    modern  History,  after  having  pointed  out  the  most  important 


ays 
the  knowledge  of  the  historical  writers,  and  on  historical  teaching. 

BERTINI  GIOVANNI  MARIA,  member  of  the  general  Council  of  the  elementary  schools, 
and  an  extraordinary  member  of  the  supreme  Council  of  public  instruction,  on  the  his- 
tory of  ancient  Philosophy,  will  lecture  on  the  History  of  Philosophy,  from  Descartes  to 
our  times,  on  Mondays,  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  at  10  o'clock. 

BERTI  DOMENICO,  in  Moral  Philosophy,  will  lecture  on  the  comparative  History  of  the 
principal  systems  of  Moral  Philosophy,  on  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays,  at  12 
o'clock. 

PEIRETTI  GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,  in  Metaphysics,  will  lecture  on  Theological  Meta- 
physics, on  Tuesdays,  Thursdays  and  Saturdays,  at  10  o'clock. 

FLECHIA  GIOVANNI,  on  Sanscrit,  will  lecture  on  the  Grammar  of  Sanscrit,  and  will 
interpret  Visvamotra,  an  Episode  of  the  Rama j  ana  ;  he  will  also  explain  some  fables  from 
the  Hitopadesa,  and  two  hymns  of  the  Rigveda,  on  Tuesdays,  Thursdays,  and  Saturdays, 
at  10  o'clock. 

SCHIAPARELLI   LuiGi,  will  take  place  of  the  professor  of  History  and  Archeology. 

BERTI NARIA  FRANCESCO  will  take  place  of  the  professors  of  Philosophy. 

RICHETTI  CARLO  and  BACHIALONI  CARLO  will  take  place  of  professor  of  Method, 
when  prevented  from  lecturing. 

FACULTY  OF  PHYSICAL  SCIENCES  AND  MATHEMATICS. — This  faculty  em- 
braces the  following  courses:  1st,  Physical  Science  and  Geometry;  2d, 
Natural  History ;  3d,  Chemistry  ;  4th,  Mathematics ;  5th,  Architecture. 

THE  COURSE  OF  PHYSICAL  SCIENCE  AND  GEOMETRY  is  attended  by  the  stu- 
dents who  intend  to  become  professors  of  these  sciences  in  the  secondary 
schools.  It  comprehends  the  lectures  of  the  following  chairs  :  1st,  Finite 
and  Infinitesimal  Analysis ;  2d,  Descriptive  Geometry  ;  3d,  Experimental 
Physical  Science  ;  4th,  Superior  Physical  Science  ;  5th,  Chemistry  ;  6th, 
Mineralogy ;  7th,  Zoology ;  8th,  Botany.  The  lectures  are  divided  in  the 
following  order,  through  four  years :  1st  year,  Experimental  Physical 
Science,  Finite  analysis,  Linear  Drawing :  2d  year,  Experimental  Physical 
Science,  Differential  and  Integral  Calculation,  Chemistry ;  3d  year,  superior 
Physical  Science,  Mineralogy,  Zoology,  and  Descriptive  Geometry;  <ith 
year,  Superior  Physical  Science,  Botany,  practical  experiments  of  Physical 
Science  and  Chemistry. 

THE  COURSES  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY  AND  CHEMISTRY  intend  to  prepare 
professors  of  these  sciences  for  the  secondary  schools.  They  embrace  the 
following  subjects:  1st,  Algebra  and  higher  Geometry ;  2d,  Physical  ex- 
perimental Science ;  3d,  Chemistry ;  4th,  Mineralogy  ;  5th,  Zoology ;  6th, 
Botany.  The  subjects  prescribed  for  the  course  of  natural  history  are 
divided  through  four  years,  as  follows  :  In  the  first  year,  the  students 
attend  the  lectures  on  experimental  Physical  Science,  Chemistry,  Algebra 


44  SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

and  superior  Geometry ;  in  the  second  year,  on  Chemistry,  Mineralogy, 
Zoology  and  Botany ;  in  the  third  year,  Mineralogy,  Zoology,  and  Botany ; 
in  the  fourth  year,  Mineralogy,  Zoology,  and  Botany.  The  subjects  for 
the  course  of  Chemistry  follow  this  order :  first  year,  experimental  Phys- 
sical  Science,  Botany,  Algebra,  and  superior  Geometry ;  second  year,  exper- 
imental Physical  Science,  Chemistry,  Zoology,  and  practical  experiments 
in  Chemistry ;  third  year,  Chemistry,  Mineralogy,  technical  Chemistry,  and 
practical  experiments  in  Chemistry ;  fourth  year,  attendance  at  the  labo- 
ratory of  Chemistry,  and  the  lectures  on  agricultural  Chemistry. 

THE  COURSE  OF  MATHEMATICS  proposes  to  prepare  hydraulic  engineers. 
They  are  requested  to  attend  the  lectures,  1st,  on  Algebra  ;  2d;  on  plain 
and  spherical  Trigonometry  ;  3d,  on  analytic  Geometry ;  4th,  on  infinites- 
imal Analysis,  differential  and  integral  Calculus ;  5th,  on  descriptive 
Geometry ;  6th,  on  rational  Mechanics,  and  on  Machines ;  Tth,  on  practi- 
cal Geometry  ;  8th,  on  Hydraulics;  9th,  on  Architecture ;  10th,  on  Build- 
ings, and  on  Chemistry  applied  to  the  art  of  building.  The  order  is  as 
follows ;  1st  year,  Algebra,  plain  and  spherical  Trigonometry,  analytical 
Geometry,  architectural  Drawing ;  2<Z  year,  infinitesimal  Analysis,  differ- 
ential and  integral  Calculus,  descriptive  Geometry,  Architecture ;  3d 
year,  rational  Mechanics,  Machines,  practical  Geometry,  Architecture  ;  4iA 
year,  Hydraulics,  Buildings,  and  Chemistry  applied  to  the  art  of  building. 
Should  the  students  of  this  course  intend  to  obtain  also  the  diploma  of 
civil  architects,  besides  the  diploma  of  hydraulic  engineers,  they  are 
obliged  to  attend,  in  the  fourth  year  of  their  course,  the  lectures  on  Civil 
Architecture. 

THE  COURSE  OF  CIVIL  ARCHITECTURE  proceeds  through  four  years,  on  the 
following  subjects ;  1st,  algebraic  Analysis  ;  2d,  descriptive  Geometry;  3d, 
practical  Geometry ;  4th,  rational  Mechanics ;  5th,  Architecture ;  6th, 
Buildings,  and  Chemistry  applied  to  the  art  of  building.  The  lectures 
follow  this  order  :  \st  year,  Architecture,  algebraical  Analysis ;  %d  year, 
Architecture,  descriptive  Geometry ;  3d  year,  Architecture,  practical  Ge- 
ometry, rational  Mechanics ;  4:th  year,  Architecture,  Building,  experiments 
on  Chemistry  applied  to  the  art  of  building. 

Besides  the  preceding  courses,  a  course  for  the  education  of  Apotheca- 
ries is  connected  partially  with  this  faculty,  and  partially  with  the  faculty 
of  medicine  and  surgery.  This  course  is  of  two  years,  and  embraces  the 
following  subjects  :  1st,  Mineralogy  ;  2d,  Botany  ;  3d,  organic  and  inor- 
ganic Chemistry ;  4th,  Pharmacy,  Toxicology,  Chemistry,  History  of  drugs; 
5th,  Exercises  in  preparations.  The  students  are  obliged  to  attend  the 
lectures  of  all  these  subjects  in  both  the  years  of  their  course.  Besides 
this  course  and  the  relative  examinations,  the  candidates  are  obliged  to 
spend  two  years  as  assistants  in  a  licensed  pharmacy,  to  pass  an  exami- 
nation in  this  practice,  and  to  sustain  a  public  disputation  on  Mineralogy, 
Botany,  Chemistry,  and  theoretical  and  practical  Pharmacy. 

For  the  profession  of  Land  Surveyors,  there  is  no  public  course  pre- 
scribed, but  the  students  are  obliged  to  file  their  names  in  the  register  of 
the  university,  declaring  their  intention  of  studying  for  that  profes- 


SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  45 

sion.  After  this,  they  are  obliged  to  study  and  to  practice  for  three  years 
under  the  direction  of  an  engineer,  architect  or  land  surveyor,  to  be  cho- 
sen by  themselves,  and  to  pass  afterward  a  private  and  a  public  examina- 
tion, at  the  university,  on  the  subject  of  their  courses. 

The  catalogue  of  the  faculty  for  the  year  1856-7  is  as  follows  : 

PLANA  GIOVANNI,  vice-president  of  the  supreme  Council  of  public  instruction,  in 
Analysis,  will  lecture  on  the  introduction  to  the  Infinitesimal  Analysis,  and  on  the  Elements 
of  differential  and  integral  Calculus,  at  half  past  1 1  o'clock,  every  day. 

MORRIS  GIUSEPPE,  member  of  the  supreme  Council  of  public  instruction,  in  Botany, 
will  lecture  on  Organography,  Glossology,  vegetable  Physiology,  and  Tassonomy ;  he  will  also 
undertake  excursions  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  city,  in  which  he  will  exercise  his  Students  in 
determining  Species ;  he  will  point  out  the  natural  families,  (3d  series,)  and  the  medicinal, 
economical,  and  industrial  plants  in  the  botanic  garden  ;  finally,  he  will  lecture  on  the  distri- 
bution of  vegetables  on  the  superficies  of  the  globe,  at  half  past  10,  on  Mondays  and  Fri- 
days, till  April,  then  every  day,  at  half  past  9. 

SISMONDA  ANGELO,  member  of  the  Council  of  the  university,  in  Mineralogy,  after 
having  given  the  general  principles  of  Mineralogy,  will  lecture  on  Flint  Stone  and  its  com- 
pounds, and  on  fossil  combustibles,  every  day,  at  a  quarter  past  8. 

POLLONE  IGNAZIO,  extraordinary  member  of  the  supreme  Council  of  public  in- 
struction, and  member  of  the  general  Council  for  the  elementary  schools,  in  Analysis, 
will  lecture  on  algebraic  Analysis,  on  Trigonometry,  and  on  analytical  Geometry,  at  half  past 
11 ,  every  day. 

PROMIS  CARLO,  in  civil  Architecture,  will  lecture  on  it,  at  half  past  9,  every  day. 

MENABREA  LUIGI  FEDERIGO,  in  Construction,  will  give  the  Theory  of  construction, 
on  Mondays,  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  at  half  past  10 ;  and  on  Thursdays  will  apply 
the  theory  to  special  cases . 

DEFILIPPI  FILIPPO,  in  Zoology,  after  having  given  the  general  Ideas  of  the  Structure 
and  functions  of  animals,  will  lecture  on  mollusks,  etc.,  and  at  the  close  of  the  year,  will  give 
a  course  of  lectures  on  parts  of  the  human  body,  at  half  past  8,  every  day. 

ABBENE  ANGELO,  in  Pharmaceutic  Chemistry,  after  an  Introduction,  will  lecture  on 
Galenic  Medicaments,  and  then  on  Medicaments  taken  from  the  inorganic  kingdom,  on  Tues- 
days, Thursdays  and  Saturdays,  at  half  past  10.  In  the  two  last  months  he  will  lec- 
ture on  chemical  Toxicology. 

RICHELMI  PROSPERO,  in  Hydraulics,  will  lecture  on  this  subject,  every  day,  at 
half  past  8  ;  at  the  close  of  the  year  he  will  make  hydraulic  experiments  at  the  Royal 
Hydraulic  Tower,  during  the  mornings. 

ERBA  GIUSEPPE  BARTOLOMEO,  in  Algebra  and  superior  Geometry,  will  lecture  on 
these  subjects,  every  day,  at  a  quarter  past.  8. 

FERKATI  CAMILLO,  in  practical  Geometry,  will  lecture  on  it  every  day,  at  half  past  11 ; 
on  Mondays,  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  he  will  lecture  on  descriptive  Geometry,  at  3 
o'clock. 

CHIO  FELICE,  in  Superior  Physical  Science,  will  lecture  on  it,  at  half  past  2,  on  Mon- 
days, Wednesdays  and  Fridays. 

PIRIA  RAFAELLE,  in  general  Chemistry,  after  having  given  the  general  principles  and 
laws  of  Chemistry,  will  lecture  on  Inorganic  and  Organic  Bodies,  at  half  past  9;  he  will 
make  occasionally  practical  experiments. 

N.  N,  in  general  and  experimental  Physical  Science,  will  lecture  on  it,  making 
occasionally  public  experiments,  at  2  o'clock,  on  Mondays,  Wednesdays  and  Fridays. 

DELPONTE  Gio  BATTA  will  take  place  of  the  professor  of  Botany. 

SISMONDA  EUGENIO  will  take  place  of  the  professor  of  Mineralogy. 

SOBRERO  ASCANIO,  in  Chemistry  applied  to  arts  and  industry,  will  lecture  on  Chemis- 
try applied  to  the  Art  of  construction. 

BRUNO  GIUSEPPE  will  take  place  of  the  professors  of  Mathematics. 

CIMA  ANTONIO  will  take  place  of  the  professor  of  Physical  Science. 

BORSARELLI  PIETRO  will  take  place  of  the  professor  of  Pharmaceutic  Chemistry, 
when  prevented  from  lecturing. 

The  method  of  teaching  is  by  lectures  and  by  experiments  in  the  ex- 
perimental branches.  Most  of  the  professors  publish  elementary  treat- 
ises on  the  subjects  of  their  lectures,  which  are  valuable  both  to  the  stu- 
dents and  professors.  These  are  also  required  to  point  out  in  their  lec- 
tures and  treatises  the  principal  writers  to  be  consulted  by  the  students 
on  the  subjects  of  their  study. 

The  discipline  of  the  students  is  maintained  by  the  same  system,  which 
is  followed  in  the  secondary  schools.  Indeed  we  should  say,  that  expulsion 


46  SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

from  the  university  is  the  only  punishment,  which  can  be  applied  by 
the  scholastic  authorities ;  we  must  also  say,  that  the  occasion  very  sel- 
dom arises  of  applying  such  a  punishment.  The  Rector  of  the  university 
is  especially  charged  with  the  discipline  of  the  institution. 

Connected  with  the  university,  and  under  the  direction  of  the  govern- 
ment, there  is  a  ROYAL  COLLEGE  OF  THE  PROVINCES,  founded  and  endowed 
by  the  munificence  of  the  kings  of  Sardinia  and  enriched  by  legacies  of 
private  benevolence.  This  is  an  establishment,  in  which  the  students  are 
furnished  with  free  board  and  lodging  through  all  the  course  of  the 
university,  and  with  every  aid  in  their  studies  and  education.  The  royal 
college  of  the  provinces  disposes  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  free  places, 
which  are  given  as  a  reward  to  those  students,  who  have  passed  the  most 
successful  examinations.  These  examinations  are  opened  whenever  a 
vacancy  occurs,  and  those  students  only  can  present  themselves  who  have 
completed  the  secondary  courses,  and  who  are  born  in  that  province,  to 
which  belongs  the  vacant  place.  The  students  of  the  royal  college  of  the 
provinces  are  also  exempted  from  the  examination  fees. 

After  having  completed  the  full  course  of  the  faculty,  and  having 
passed  successfully  all  the  annual  examinations  prescribed  by  law,  the 
studepts  are  requested  to  enter  upon  a  public  disputation  for  obtaining 
the  Doctorship.  This  disputation  is  upon  subjects  selected  from  those  of 
the  course,  and  published  by  the  candidate.  The  discussion  is  sus- 
tained before  the  faculty,  in  which  the  collegiate  doctors  fill  the  office  of 
examiners  and  opponents.  The  faculty  afterward  decides  by  ballot  upon 
the  merit  of  the  candidate,  bestowing  upon  him  the  Doctorship  or  reject- 
ing his  application. 

The  names  of  the  students,  who  distinguished  themselves  in  the  exam- 
inations, are  published  at  the  close  of  the  year,  in  the  official  paper. 

From  the  colleges  under  the  direction  of  the  university  of  Turin,  740 
students  presented  themselves  in  the  year  1855—56  for  examination  pre- 
paratory to  admission  to  the  courses  of  the  university,  of  which  607  were 
admitted,  and  133  rejected.  In  the  year  1856-7  there  are  in  the  univer- 
sity 1433  students,  of  which  2  belong  to  the  faculty  of  theology,  709  to 
the  faculty  of  jurisprudence,  264  to  the  faculty  of  medicine  and  surgery, 
11  to  the  course  of  obstetric  clinic,  17  to  phlebotomy,  182  to  pharmacy, 
36  to  the  course  of  physical  science  and  geometry,  7  to  natural  history, 
16  to  rational  philosophy,  138  to  the  course  of  mathematics,  4  to  the  course 
of  architecture,  32  to  belles-lettres,  7  to  methodology,  8  to  the  course  of 
Latin  grammar.  Adding  to  this  number  the  students,  who  pursued  some 
part  of  their  course  in  some  provincial  city,  we  have  the  total  number  of 
students  1858. 

In  the  university  of  Genoa  there  were,  according  to  the  latest  statistics, 
556  students,  of  which  6  belonged  to  the  faculty  of  theology,  282  to  jur- 
isprudence, 182  to  medicine,  surgery,  and  pharmacy,  86  to  mathematics 
and  architecture.  The  number  of  the  students  of  the  university  of  Cag- 
liari  was  325,  of  which  53  of  theology,  125  of  jurisprudence,  130  of  med- 
icine, surgery,  and  pharmacy,  11  of  architecture,  6  of  geodesy.  Th" 


SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  47 

number  of  the  university  of  Sassari  was  245,  of  which  43  of  theology, 
123  of  jurisprudence,  76  of  medicine,  surgery,  and  pharmacy.  From 
the  colleges  which  depend  upon  the  university  of  Genoa,  there  pass  an- 
nually to  the  classes  of  the  university  an  average  of  201  students,  from 
that  of  Cagliari  120,  from  Sassari  94,  and  the  students  who  obtain  an- 
nually the  doctorships  in  the  university  of  Turin  reach  an  average  of  525, 
in  that  of  Genoa  140,  in  that  of  Cagliari  74,  in  that  of  Sassari  49. 

The  number  of  the  professors  in  the  university  of  Turin,  including 
those  of  the  cities  of  Chambery  and  Nice  is  89,  of  Genoa  46,  of  Cagliari 
34,  of  Sassari  29.  Their  salary  is  not  uniform,  being  greater  in  Turin  than 
in  the  other  universities. 

The  university  of  Turin  possesses  for  the  aid  of  the  intellectual  edu- 
cation of  its  students  the  following  institutions,  the  free  use  of  which 
belongs  to  the  professors,  as  well  as  to  the  scholars  and  the  people  at 
large. 

1.  A  PUBLIC  LIBRARY,  which  was  founded  by  Emanuel  Philibert,  en- 
dowed by  other  kings,  especially  by  Victor  Amedeus  II,  and  enriched  by 
private  donations.     The  library  contains  more  than  one  hundred  and  ten 
thousand  volumes,  among  which  the  collection  of  works  on  theology,  jur- 
isprudence, politics,  medicine,  and  surgery,  is  the  most  complete.     The 
principal  treasures  of  the  library  are  the  Arabic,  Greek,  Latin,  Italian, 
and  French  MSS.     It  possesses  also  many  rare  editions  of  the  century 
in  which  the  press  was  discovered,  not  a  few  of  which  are  on  parchments, 
among  these  the  POLYGLOT  OF  ANTWERP,  which  was  presented  to  the  Duke 
Emanuel   Philibert  by  Philip  II.    of  Spain.     There  are  also  over  one 
hundred  MSS.,  of  the  remotest  antiquity,  on  parchment,  and  a  very  rich 
collection  of  books  on  the  fine  arts,  of  ancient  and  modern  prints,  and 
drawings.     The  collection  of  Floras  is   complete,  and  there   are  many 
choice  and  rare  editions  t>f  Arabic,  Persian,  Chaldaic  and  Hindoo  books. 

2.  ANATOMICAL  THEATRE. — The  new  anatomical  theatre  was  founded 
by  Charles  Albert.     Its  architecture  is  simple  and  elegant  in  its  construc- 
tion, and  it  is  surmounted  by  a  roof  of  glass.     Within  are  pipes,  spouts, 
washing  tubes,  polished  floors,  and  marble  tables.    The  spacious  hall  destin- 
ed to  dissections  is  provided  with  all  the  improvements,  which  health  and 
cleanliness  require  in  anatomical  operations.     Under  the  main  amphithe- 
atre there  is  a  spacious  vault,  where  the  subjects  are  deposited,  and  from 
which  they  are  raised  by  means  of  a  machine  to  a  room  above,  where 
they  are  washed  and  laid  on  a  marble  table,  and  at  the  hour  for  the  lec- 
ture, elevated  by  the  same  means  to  the  floor  of  the  amphitheatre,  and 
placed  in  their  position  before  the  professor  and  the  students.     By  other 
mechanical  contrivances  the  subject  approaches  or  withdraws  from  the 
professor.     The  light  of  the  hall  is  so  regulated,  as  to  modify  it  according 
to  the  occasions.     The  walls  of  this  hall  are  plastered  with  calcareous 
stucco,  and  are  adorned  with  four  great  medallions,  representing  BER- 
TRANDI,  CIGNA,  MALACARNE,  and  ROLANDO.     Near  the  amphitheatre,  there 
is  a  room  appropriated  for  the  use  of  the  dissector,  provided  with  all  the 
contrivances  for  experiments.     Between  the  yard  of  the  anatomical  theatre 


48  SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

and   that  of  the  great  hospital   of  St.  John,  there  is  a   subterranean 
communication,  which  facilitate  the  transportation  of  the  subjects. 

3.  ANATOMICAL  PATHOLOGICAL  MUSEUM. — This  museum  contains  many 
preparations  of  the  systems  and  parts  of  the  human   body,  embryos  at 
different  periods,  pathological  sections  in  an  abnormal  state.     Among  the 
most  remarkable  collections  of  this  museum  we  may  mention  the  collec- 
tion of  bones  decomposed  by  syphilitic  diseases,  and  by  the  use  of  mer- 
cury ;  the  general  osteomalacy,  in  which  bones  are  light  and  spongy ;  the 
osteosarcoma  of  an  elbow,  which  is  larger  than  the  head  of  a  man  ;  and 
the  specimens  of  aneurism. 

4.  CHEMICAL  LABORATORIES  AND  AMPHITHEATRE. — There  are  six  spa- 
cious rooms  for  the  use  of  the  laboratories,  in  which  we  find  admirably 
arranged  stoves  and  ovens,  scales,  and  other  instruments,  and  chemical 
and  pharmaceutic  preparations.     The  amphitheatre  is  designed  for  public 
lectures,  and  will  seat  five  hundred  pupils  so  advantageously,  that  the 
most  minute  experiments  can  be  observed. 

5.  BOTANIC  GARDEN. — The  botanic  garden  was  founded  by  Victor 
Amedeus  II.,    and  endowed  and  improved  by  his  successors.     Under 
Charles  Albert  the  limits  were  enlarged,  new  canals  made,  and  new  pipes 
added  in  order  to  facilitate  the  irrigation  of  the  plants ;  the  trees  and 
shrubs,  which  will  grow  in  the  open  air,  were  planted  and  arranged,  ac- 
cording to  their  natural  classification  in  a  suitable  grove,  in  which  we  find 
also  the  officinal  and  economic  species,  methodically  arranged.     The  same 
king  purchased  for  the  garden  the  rich  collection  of  American   plants 
brought  to  Piedmont  by  the  botanist  Bertero,  and  the  plants  of  the  islands 
of  Sardinia  and  Capraja  were  added.     The  number  of  the   cultivated 
species  is  about  eleven  thousand,  including  many  of  great  rarity. 

The  species  of  the  herbarium  exceed  forty  thousand.  There  is  also  a 
collection  of  indigenous  mushrooms,  arranged  in  three  hundred  and  fifty 
groups,  cast  in  wax  according  to  nature.  The  king  has  recently  presented 
to  the  garden  a  beautiful  collection  of  living  plants,  seeds,  and  woods 
brought  from  Brazil  by  the  Prince  of  Carignano,  and  a  not  less  interesting 
collection  of  dry  species,  seeds  and  fruits,  for  the  study  of  carpology, 
gathered  by  Dr.  Casaretto,  in  his  excursion  to  the  same  country. 

As  early  as  1732,  the  plants  which  blossom  in  the  garden  were  painted, 
and  that  work  having  been  continued  to  this  time,  the  institution  has  a 
most  complete  botanic  iconography,  which  contains  more  than  five 
thousand  plates  in  folio. 

6.  CABINET  OF  PHYSICAL  APPARATUS. — This  collection  began  to    be 
formed  in  1721,  was  enriched  by  Charles  Emmanuel  III.,  and  increased  by 
Beccaria.     Charles  Felix  sent  Professor  Botto  to  France  and  England,  to 
purchase  all  the  modern  apparatus  required  by  the  cabinet,  and  many 
fine  instruments,  especially  relating  to  optics,  were  added  to  it  by  him. 

7.  ASTRONOMIC  OBSERVATORY. — The  observatory  was  located  in  the 
year  1820  on  the  northern  tower  of  the  four,  which  arise  at  the  angle  of 
the  ancient  palace  of  the   Royal   Castle,  now  used  for  the  meetings  of  the 
Senate.    The  hall  of  the  observatory  is  beautifully  arranged,  and  its  walls 


SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  49 

adorned  with  many  medallions,  representing  LAGRANGE,  GALILEO,  TVCHO 
BRAHE,  NEWTON,  KEPLER,  and  CASSINI.  The  meridian  circle  is  erected  be- 
tween two  marble  columns  in  the  centre  of  the  hall,  and  can  be  turned 
east  or  west,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  observer.  This  instrument  was  con- 
structed in  Munich  by  Reichenbach,  and  has  a  diameter  of  three  feet,  di- 
vided on  silver  into  arcs  of  a  sixtieth,  and  reads  to  two  seconds.  The  clear 
aperture  of  the  telescope  is  of  1 2  centimeters,  and  its  focal  length  of  a  meter 
and  six  hundred  millimeters.  Among  the  other  instruments,  we  may  men- 
tion a  pendulum,  which  gives  the  sidereal  time,  constructed  by  MARTIN 
of  Paris,  two  other  telescopes  by  DOLLOND,  one  with  an  aperture  of  65 
millimeters,  and  of  a  focal  length  of  a  meter,  the  other  of  an  aperture  of 
a  decimeter,  and  with  a  focal  length  of  a  meter,  and  50  centimeters. 
There  is  a  fourth  telescope,  by  Fraunhofer  of  Munich,  mounted  on  a 
brass  tripod,  with  an  aperture  of  75  millimeters,  and  a  focal  length  of  a 
meter.  There  is  also  a  reflector-sextant,  by  Troughton  of  London,  with 
a  diameter  of  two  decimeters,  divided  on  silver,  which  reads  to  five  sec- 
onds. Ascending  to  the  turning  roof  on  the  east,  we  find  a  Refractor 
circle  of  a  diameter  of  50  centimeters,  divided  on  silver,  which  reads  to 
four  seconds,  the  work  of  Reichenbach.  On  the  west  side  of  the  roof  is  an 
Equatorial,  which  has  a  circle  of  declination  of  a  diameter  of  62  centime- 
ters, divided  in  silver,  and  reads  to  five  seconds.  The  clock  has  a 
diameter  of  45  centimeters,  divided  on  silver,  and  marks  minutes. 

8.  HYDRAULIC  BUILDING. — This  builiding  is  erected  at  a  distance  of 
two  miles  from  the  city.     It  consists  of  a  large  tower,  with  three  floors, 
and  it  can  be  filled  with  water  from  a  conduct  above.     Two  large  reser- 
voirs receive  the  water  from  the  tower  and  measure  it ;  there  are  besides 
many  aqueducts  with  different  declivities  and  directions,  and  a  collection 
of  hydrometric  apparatus  and  instruments. 

9.  ZOOLOGIC  MUSEUM. — Founded  during  the  reign  of  Charles  Emmanuel 
III.,  it  received  many  donations  from  private  sources,  and  was  greatly  in- 
creased by  professors  Borson  and  Bonelli ;  at  present  it  is  one  of  the 
best  museums  in  Italy.     The  different  classes  of  animals  are  arranged  in 
two  large  halls,  in  a  long  gallery,  and  in  many  other  rooms.     The  ver- 
tebrates, cephalopods,  molluscs,  and  zoophyts  occupy  large  convenient 
shelves ;  the  living  and  fossil  shells  are  disposed  hi  elegant  cases ;  the 
Crustacea  and  insects  fill  a  great  number  of  cases.     The  invertebrates 
and  testacea  are  abundant,  as  well  as  the  shells  both  living  and  fossil. 
Among  the  living   shells  is  worthy  of  being  mentioned  an  avicula 
margaritifera,  in  which  a  pearl  can  be  seen,  wonderful  for  its  volume  and 
for  its  form.     The  fossils  embrace  a  collection  of  shells  discovered   in  the 
tertiaria    of  Italy,    and   especially   of  Piedmont.     Finally,   a  series  of 
skeletons  of  rare  animals  well  kept  and  arranged. 

10.  MINERALOGIC  MUSEUM.— This  collection  embraces  many  specimens 
of  minerals,  rocks  and   earth   of  different  countries,  and  especially  of 
Piedmont,  and  of  the  island  of  Sardinia.     It  occupies  two  great  halls, 
where  the  objects  are  exhibited  either  in  shelves,  on  tables,  or  in  cases 
enclosed  by  glasses. 


50 


SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 


11.  MUSECM  OF  ANTIQUITIES. — Among  these,  the  coins  take  the  first  and 
most  important  part,  and  number  fifteen  thousand,  Egyptian,  Greek, 
Etruscan  and  Roman,  of  gold,  silver  and  copper.     The  collection  of  mar- 
ble statues,  busts  and  heads  is  not  large  ;  there  is  a  Cupid  sleeping  on 
a  lion's  skin ;  a  head  of  Antinous  crowned  with  a  garland  of  vine  leaves, 
like  a  Bacchante ;  here  is  also  a  mosaic  work,  which  was  discovered  in 
the  island  of  Sardinia,  and  represents  Orpheus  playing  the  lyre,  surround- 
ed by  different  animals.     Among  the  statuettes  of  bronze,  Etruscan,  Greek, 
Roman,  and  Sardinian,   may  be  mentioned  a  Pallas,  a  Faunus,  many 
tablets  of  bronze  with  Roman  inscriptions,  a  collection  of  ancient  vases 
either  of  bronze  or  of  silver,  and  a   collection  of  Etruscan  vases,  many 
of  which  were  discovered  in  Piedmont. 

12.  EGYPTIAN  MUSEUM. — It  is  perhaps  the  most  complete  in  Europe. 
It  was  enriched  by  Charles  Felix,  who  bought  a  great  quantity  of  these 
monuments  from  Chevalier  Drovetti,  a  Piedmontese,  who  occupied  the 
place  of  French  consul  in  Egypt     Here  are  statues  of  the  ancient  Phar- 
aohs, many  colossal,  and  all  made  of  one  piece,  either  of  spotless  granite, 
or  of  green  and  black  basalt,  or  of  calcareous  stone.     There  are  many 
statues  of  ancient  kings,  or  representing  gods  and  goddesses,  sacred  ani- 
mals, and  mythic  emblems ;  they  are  of  different  sizes  from  the  colossal 
downward.     More     than  two   hundred  square  boards,  either  carved  or 
painted,  represent  persons  offering  food,  flowers  or  fruits.     One  of  them, 
the  other  half  of  which  is  preserved  in  the  Vatican  Museum,  represents 
Sesonchi,  the  chief  of  the  22d  dynasty,  who  lived  ten  centuries  before 
Christ ;  then  we  meet  a  collection  of  objects  of  worship  :    such  are  two 
altars  of  black  granite,  many  marble  and  stone  tables  for  the  offering  and 
the  libation,  sacred  vases  of  different  material  and  size,  perfume  vases 
of  stone  and  of  terra-cotta,  loaves,  grapes,  grains,  fruits — the  specimens 
of  scarabeus,  a  symbol  most  venerated  by  the  Egyptians,  amount  to  two 
thousand.     There  are  a  great  number  of  mummies ; — their  linen  or  cotton 
wrappers,  and  wooden  cases,  as  well  as  the  mummies  themselves,  are  ad- 
mirably kept  and  preserved.     Here  are  also  many  cases  containing  the 
mummies  of  animals,  cats,  fishes,  hawks,  reptiles,  crocodiles,  &c.     In 
the  museum  are  also  exhibited  more  than  two  hundred  rolls,  or  volumes 
of  papyrus,  which  belong  to  the  epoch  in  which  Egypt  was  under  the 
sway  of  Persia,  and  thence  forward  to  the  times  of  the  Ptolemies  and  of 
Rome.     Some  are  written  on  linen,  some  on  parchment,  wood,  stone,  or 
terra-cotta,  in  the  Egyptian,  Greek,  or  Coptic  language,  in  hieroglyphic, 
hieratic  or  demotic   signs.      There  are   likewise  linen,  clothes,  leather 
stockings,  intertwined  with  palm  leaves,  vases  of  copper,  of  alabaster,  etc. 

IV.       GENERAL   DIRECTION   AND    SUPERVISION   OF   PUBLIC   INSTRUCTION. 

Before  the  year  1847,  the  general  direction  of  public  education  belong- 
ed to  the  secretary  of  the  Interior ;  but  in  reality  it  was  in  the  hands  of 
a  council  of  instruction,  called  Magistrate  dclla  Eiforma  agli  Sfudi,  the 
members  of  which  were  appointed  by  the  king,  and  which  exercised  full 
jurisdiction,  and  had  an  absolute  power  over  all  the  scholastic  institutions 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 


51 


of  the  country.  In  that  year  this  Board  was  abolished,  and  a  special  de- 
partment of  public  instruction  created  with  a  minister  at  its  head,  who 
takes  an  equal  rank*  with  the  other  seven  secretaries  of  state,  who  com- 
pose the  cabinet  of  the  administration.  It  belongs  to  this  department 
to  diffuse  and  to  promote  through  all  the  country  scientific  and  literary 
education,  and  to  aid  the  progress  of  the  fine  arts.  It  has  the  supreme 
direction  of  all  the  universities  of  the  state  and  all  the  other  scientific  or 
educational  establishments,  of  the  national,  royal,  and  municipal  colleges 
and  schools,  whether  classic,  technical  or  primary,  either  public  or 
private,  whether  for  boys,  girls,  or  adults.  The  appointments  of  all  pro- 
fessors, teachers,  inspectors,  superintendents,  and  officers  of  the  instruc- 
tion supported  by  the  state  come  under  the  jurisdiction  of  this  de- 
partment, and  to  its  approbation  the  appointments  made  by  municipalities 
or  other  corporations  for  their  own  institutions  must  be  submitted.  It 
determines  to  what  pupils  free  board  is  to  be  granted  in  the  institutions 
of  the  state,  and  presides  over  the  administration  of  legacies  bestowed 
upon  educational  establishments.  It  promulgates  regulations  for  their 
management,  programmes  of  instruction,  and  methods  of  teaching,  ap- 
proves text-books,  and  establishes  the  rules  of  discipline.  All  other 
scholastic  authorities,  councils  of  universities  and  councils  of  faculties, 
permanent  committees  for  the  secondary  schools,  inspectors,  both  of  secon- 
dary and  of  primary  instruction,  general  councils  for  elementary  instruc- 
tion, provincial  and  collegia!  councils,  royal,  provincial,  and  local  superin- 
tendents, presidents  of  boarding  schools,  directors  of  instruction,  and  all 
similar  officers  depend  on  the  ministry  of  public  instruction,  and  are 
referred  to  it,  as  to  the  central  power  and  the  highest  authority. 

Soon  after,  in  1848,  a  SUPREME  COUNCIL  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  was 
created,  (Conaiglio  superiore  della  istruzione  publica,}  and  attached  to 
the  ministry,  with  the  object  of  aiding  and  assisting  it  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  department.  The  council  is  presided  over  by  the  minister 
himself,  and  is  composed  of  a  vice-president,  seven  ordinary  and  five  ex- 
traordinary members,  appointed  by  the  government,  the  former  during 
life,  the  latter  for  three  years.  Five  of  the  ordinary  members  must  be 
chosen  from  among  the  professors  of  each  faculty  of  some  of  the  universi- 
ties, while  the  two  others  can  not  belong  to  any  university,  but  must  be 
elected  from  among  persons  of  high,  scientific  or  literary  repute ;  the  ex- 
traordinary members  may  be  either  professors  or  collegiate  doctors. 
Thus  the  general  administration  of  public  instruction  was  organized  in 
1848,  and  coordinated  with  all  the  other  scholastic  authorities,  which  were 
established  over  its  different  branches.  Though  a  decided  improvement 
on  the  former  system,  this  organization  has  been  proved  by  an  experience 
of  eight  years  to  be  too  complicated  in  its  structure,  and  too  weak  in  its 
operation.  By  creating  so  many  councils  of  different  branches  of  instruc- 
tion, as  separate  bodies,  independent  of  each  other,  the  law  of  1848 

*C.  Alfiei,  C.  Boncompagni,  V.  Gioberti,  F.  Merlo,  L.  Cibrario,  and  P.  Gioja,  are  the  most 
prominent  men,  who  have  held  this  office.  Dr.  G.  Lanza  is  the  present  incumbent ;  his  noble  char- 
acter and  large  educational  views  place  him  high  among  the  statesmen  of  Sardinia. 


52  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

tributed  the  scholastic  government  among  too  many  centers,  and  the 
administration,  losing  its  unity,  became  perplexed,  confused,  and  power- 
less. Besides,  the  supreme  council  in  its  first  organization  was  filled  with 
permanent  members,  who  though  of  a  high  standing  in  the  scientific 
world,  yet,  belonging  to  a  past  age,  did  not  represent  the  necessities  and 
conditions  of  the  new  era,  and  were  entirely  unable  to  direct  the  nation- 
al education  of  the  country  conformably  to  its  new  institutions.  Then, 
the  council  being  mainly  composed  of  one  member  from  each  faculty,  it 
formed  a  body  in  its  majority  not  qualified  for  making  and  enforcing  pro- 
visions relative  to  any  branches  of  learning,  which  were  either  imperfect- 
ly or  not  at  all  represented  in  that  board.  A  like  defect  of  organization 
was  found  in  the  subordinate  authorities,  where  the  power  was  too  often 
entrusted  to  men  lacking  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  condition  of  the 
scholastic  system  of  the  country.  Add  to  this,  that  political  questions 
since  that  time  have  absorbed  all  the  activities  of  the  country,  and  it  will 
be  easily  understood  why  the  new  system  of  administration  proved  a  sig- 
nal failure,  and  the  necessity  of  a  reform  frequently  arrested  the  attention 
of  Parliament. 

It  was  not,  however,  until  February,  1857,  that  the  House  of  Deputies 
passed  a  bill  establishing  a  new  system  of  administration,  which  was 
afterward  approved  by  the  Senate,  and  promulgated  by  the  King.  As  it 
changes  the  organization  of  the  educational  authorities  of  the  country, 
and  constitutes  a  new  basis,  on  which  henceforth  its  administration  will 
rest,  we  subjoin  the  bill  in  full,  leaving  to  time  to  decide,  whether  the  sys- 
tem recently  enacted  can  be  considered  a  reform,  and  while  the  bill  con- 
tains provisions  sufficient  to  ensure  the  unity  of  the  directive  power,  it 
gives  at  the  same  time  adequate  guarantees  of  a  liberal  administration. 

V.     BUDGET  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION. 
The  expenses  authorized  by  the  Parliament  for  the  support  of  educa- 
tion, under  the  direction  of  the  department  of  public  instruction,  during 
the  year  1857,  amount  to  the  sum  of  2,031,989  francs,  viz.: 

For  the  executive  department  of  public  instruction, 88,750  francs. 

supreme  council  of  public  instruction, 16,500 

general  council  of  elementary  and  teachers'  schools,       .     .     .     9,300 
university  councils  and  offices  of  the  four  universities,     .     .      91,221 

royal  scholastic  superintendents, 49,959 

inspectors  of  secondary  schools, 14,500 

instruction  in  the  universities, 492,862 

university  teaching*in  the  provinces, 34,350 

national,  royal  and  municipal  colleges 600,580 

technical  schools, 77,540 

veterinary  school, 81,800 

The  balance  of  the  appropriation  is  devoted  to  the  scientific  establish- 
ments, museums,  library,  subsidies  to  elementary  schools,  &c.  Ad- 
ding to  this  sum  the  amount  raised  and  expended  by  the  townships 
and  provinces,  for  the  support  of  public  instruction,  which  reaches 
3,557,229  francs,  we  have  a  total  expenditure  of  5,589,216  francs. 

To  enable  our  readers  to  institute  a  comparison  between  the  other  de- 
partments and  that  of  public  instruction,  we  give  the  expenditures  of 
the  different  branches  of  the  central  administration,  from  the  budget  of  1856. 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  gg 

Department  of  finances 75,4-1,753  francs. 

grace  and  justice, 4,328,351 

foreign  affairs, 3,431,745 

public  instruction, 2,045,254 

the  interior 7',60l'846 

public  works, 11,783,714 

war 32',247!528 

navy, 4,355,061 

In  the  same  year  the  revenues  of  the  state  amounted  to  132,529,838 
francs.  The  estimated  expenditure  of  the  department  of  public  instruction, 
as  submitted  to  the  Parliament  for  the  year  1858,  is  2,100,709  francs. 

VI.     SCIENTIFIC  AND  ARTISTIC  ESTABLISHMENTS. 

To  complete  our  exposition,  we  add  a  short  account  of  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal scientific  and  artistic  establishments,  which  though  not  dependent 
on  the  Department  of  Instruction,  yet  greatly  conduce  to  the  general  cul- 
ture of  the  people,  to  the  advancement  of  science,  and  are  the  standard 
of  the  intellectual  development  of  the  country. 

ROYAL  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES. — This  academy  was  founded  by  private 
individuals,  such  as  the  Counts  of  Saluzzo,  Lagrange  and  Cigna,  who  were 
soon  joined  by  other  celebrated  men,  as  Alioni,  Foncenex  and  Morozzo. 
In  1783,  this  private  association  was  transformed  into  a  public  institution 
by  a  special  privilege  bestowed  upon  it  by  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  Victor 
Amedeus  III.,  and  very  soon  was  illustrated  by  the  names  of  Dantoni, 
Robilante,  Debutet,  Napione,  Prospero  Balbo  and  many  others  of  great 
scientific  or  literary  reputation.  In  more  recent  times  the  greatest  men  of 
the  country  have  belonged  to  this  academy,  as  the  great  chemist  Giobert, 
Bidone  the  mathematician,  Diodata  Saluzzo  the  poetess,  Provana,  Lasca- 
ris,  Bessone,  Boucheron,  and  Rosmini. 

The  Academy  is  divided  into  two  classes,  one  of  mathematical  and  phys- 
ical sciences,  the  other  of  moral,  historical  and  philological  sciences. 
When  complete  it  numbers  forty  resident  members,  twenty  for  each 
class ;  its  officers  are  a  President,  Vice  President,  and  a  treasurer.  More- 
over, each  class  is  presided  over  by  a  Director  and  a  Secretary.  Besides  these 
forty  members  who  must  be  residents  of  Turin,  the  classes  are  allowed  to 
elect  ten  other  national  members,  either  within  or  without  the  State. 
There  are  also  twenty  foreign  members,  ten  for  each  class,  among  whom 
we  find  the  most  celebrated  men  of  Europe.  The  number  of  corres- 
ponding members  is  not  determined  by  the  by -Jaws,  and  can  be  increased 
at  the  will  of  the  academy.  Each  class  offers,  every  year,  a  reward  of  a 
certain  sum  to  the  best  work  on  some  specified  subject :  twenty-four  an- 
nual pensions  of  six  hundred  francs  each  are  secured  to  the  eldest 
members  of  the  academy. 

In  1759  the  first  volume  of  the  Academy  was  published  under  the  title 
of  Miscellanea  philosopMco-matheraatica  societatis  prirata  Taurinen- 
sis,  which  was  received  with  great  favor  by  all  the  scientific  bodies  of 
Europe.-  From  1759  to  1773  four  other  volumes  were  published,  under 


54.  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

the  title  of  Melanges  de  pJiilosopJiie  et  de  mathematiyue  de  la  Societe 
Royale  de  Turin.  Since  1783  the  transactions  of  the  Academy  are  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  MEMOKIE  DELLA  R.  ACADEMIA  DELLE  SCIENZE  DI 
TOKIXO,  Ihe  first  series  of  which  embraces  forty  volumes.  The  second  se- 
ries of  the  publications,  which  first  made  its  appearance  in  1889,  now 
numbers  fourteen  volumes. 

The  hall  of  the  meetings  of  the  Academy  is  adorned  with  the  busts  of 
its  three  founders,  of  King  Victor  Amedeus  III.,  Denina,  Yernazza  and  Ger- 
dil.  The  Academy  possesses  a  very  rich  collection  of  medals  and  coins, 
Greek,  Latin,  and  modern,  of  which  a  catalogue  was  published  some 
years  ago ;  this  collection  was  presented  to  the  academy  by  one  of  its 
members,  M.  Lavy,  who  gave  also  to  the  institution  eighteen  marble 
busts  of  ancient  Romans,  which  adorn  the  great  Hall  of  the  public  meet- 
ings of  the  academy.  It  possesses  besides  a  choice  and  rich  library, 
which  contains  the  acts  of  all  the  principal  scientific  Associations  of  the 
world,  and  a  hundred  and  thirty-five  Mexican  volumes,  seven  hundred 
and  seventy-eight  from  the  United  States,  seventy  from  the  Phillipine 
Islands,  a  hundred  from  China,  forty-eight  from  the  East  Indies,  and 
thirty-two  Arabic  and  Syriac.  In  the  palace  of  the  academy,  which  was 
built  according  to  the  design  of  Guarini,  we  find  also  a  Hall  containing 
specimens  of  industrial  works,  models,  drawings  and  lithographies, 
which  is  called  the  Hall  of  Arts  and  Mechanic  Professions. 

ROYAL  MILITARY  ACADEMY. — This  institution  was  designed  for  the  chil- 
dren of  the  officers  of  the  army,  and  is  located  in  a  large  building,  near 
the  palace  of  the  king.  It  was  built  by  Charles  Emmanuel  II.,  after  the 
design  of  Amedeus  of  Castellamonte,  and  was  finished  by  Mary  John 
Baptist,  his  widow,  while  Regent  of  the  kingdom.  During  the  minority 
of  Victor  Amedeus  II.,  the  original  object  of  this  academy  was  to  re- 
ceive the  pages  of  the  court  and  young  men  belonging  to  the  nobility, 
and  to  instruct  them  in  the  use  of  all  kinds  of  weapons,  in  horsemanship, 
dancing,  mathematics,  and  belles-lettres.  Though  from  the  accounts  of 
Alfieri,  who  was  a  pupil  of  that  academy,  we  can  not  say  that  the  instruc- 
tion given  at  that  time  by  the  institution  had  any  claim  to  high  scientific  ex- 
cellence, still  it  had  even  then  acquired  great  reputation  for  the  accomplish- 
ments of  the  pupils,  so  that  even  at  that  time  many  Russian  and  English  no- 
blemen placed  their  children  under  its  direction.  In  the  course  of  time  the 
academy  passed  through  many  successive  improvements  and  reforms, 
and  as  it  now  stands,  has  for  its  object  the  instruction  in  the  art  of 
war  of  young  men  intending  to  become  officers  in  the  army.  There  are 
two  courses  in  the  academy,  one  of  five  years  for  the  ordinary  departments, 
and  the  other  of  six  for  the  learned  departments.  The  first  graduates 
non-commissioned  officers,  and  the  second  lieutenants;  who,  however, 
must  remain  two  years  more  in  the  institution,  for  the  school  of  applica- 
tion, serving  at  the  same  time  in  some  regiment.  The  various  branches 
of  instruction  are  intrusted  to  twenty  professors,  viz.:  of  Analysis  and 
Mechanics,  of  descriptive  Geometry,  of  Mathematics,  of  physical  Science, 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  gg 

Chemistry  and  Statics,  of  Fortification,  of  Topography  and  Geodesy,  of 
military  Art  and  History,  of  Design,  of  Italian  Literature,  of  French 
Language,  Dancing,  Fencing,  Gymnastics,  and  Swimming.  There  are 
besides  two  Directors  of  instruction,  eight  tutors,  and  a  machinist,  for 
keeping  in  order  the  philosophical  apparatus,  and  aiding  the  professors  of 
physical  and  chemical  Sciences  in  their  experiments.  The  pupils  of  the 
academy  number  about  200,  part  of  whom  receive  free  board,  lodgin°- 
and  instruction,  and  part  pay  a  moderate  price  for  it. 

FIRST  GENERAL  CORPS  OF  THE  ARMY,  (Stato  Ifaygi&re  Generate.) — This 
corps  is  composed  of  Officers  of  different  ranks,  of  Engineers,  Topo- 
graphic Designers  and  Engravers.  It  was  created  hi  the  middle  of  the 
last  century ;  it  has  since  been  reformed  and  improved  at  different  times. 
The  subordinate  officers  are  selected  generally  from  the  Royal  Military 
Academy,  who  follow  the  "learned"  course,  in  which  they  are  taught 
the  special  theories  in  relation  to  the  different  corps.  Though  members 
of  this  corps,  they  are  required  to  continue  their  instructions  in  the  acade- 
my, in  order  to  acquire  the  practice  of  theories  previously  learned.  In 
field-works,  both  trigonometric  and  topographic,  which  are  annually  un- 
dertaken, in  order  to  survey  the  country  and  to  draw  its  maps,  young 
officers  are  employed  under  the  direction  of  the  older,  so  as  to  give  them 
practice,  to  accustom  their  eyes  to  the  measure  of  distances,  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  physical  forms  of  ground,  to  the  appreciation  of  its 
strategic  value  and  to  the  use  of  drawings  and  maps. 

The  officers  of  this  corps,  in  time  of  war,  are  obliged  to  reconnoitre  the 
enemy,  to  observe  their  forces,  their  composition,  dispositions  and  move- 
ments, to  determine  points  to  be  fortified,  and  the  nature  and  extent  of 
the  fortifications  ;  to  open  roads,  to  build  bridges  and  other  communica- 
tions, and  to  select  quarters  for  the  army.  They  also  draw  the  maps  for 
the  use  of  the  army,  direct  the  administration  of  its  provisions,  preside 
over  the  discipline  of  the  soldiers,  the  service  of  the  guides,  safeguards 
and  explorers,  the  treatment  of  prisoners  and  of  deserters.  They  keep 
the  journal  of  all  the  operations  of  the  army,  and  have  the  direction  of 
the  administrative  department  of  war.  In  time  of  peace,  they  are  destined 
especially  to  examine  every  part  of  the  kingdom,  and  to  draw  the  most 
remarkable  places  for  military  purposes,  to  gather  the  statistics  and  his- 
torical facts  relative  to  the  same  subject,  to  compose  the  regulations  of 
the  army,  to  draw  from  all  military  works  whatever  can  be  useful  to  the 
improvement  of  the  national  forces,  and  to  direct  the  different  works 
of  topography  and  engraving,  which  are  undertaken  by  the  corps. 

The  duties  of  the  first  general  corps  are  relative  to  the  service  either  of 
arms,  or  of  the  offices.  The  former  is  divided  into  three  sections:  1st, 
of  infantry  and  cavalry ;  2d,  of  artillery  and  engineering ;  3d,  of  general 
superior  office.  The  latter  embraces :  1st,  the  office  of  the  general 
quarter-master,  the  archives  and  the  library  ;  2d,  the  office  of  topo- 
graphy and  of  engraving ;  3d,  the  general  office. 

Many  valuable  geodetic  and  topographic  works  have  been  executed  by 
this  corps,  among  which  we  may  mention  the  measure  of  an  arc  of 


56  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

parallel  of  latitude,  included  between  the  tower  of  Cordouan  near 
Bordeaux,  in  France,  and  that  of  Fiume,  in  Italy ;  which  measure  had 
been  brought  in  France  so  far  as  the  Roanne,  and  toward  Italy  so  far  as 
Ticino,  but  had  been  interrupted  by  the  Alps.  All  the  scientific  opera- 
tions made  for  this  measure,  as  well  as  the  operations  instituted  by  the 
same  corps,  in  order  to  verify  the  measure  both  geodetic  and  astronomi- 
cal of  the  arc  of  the  meridian,  formerly  determined  by  Beccaria,  were 
published  in  Milan,  in  two  volumes  in  4to,  with  diagrams.  The  corps  un- 
dertook also  a  general  primary  and  secondary  triangulation  of  all  the  con- 
tinental kingdom  so  as  to  form  a  map,  on  a  scale  of  a  fifty-thousandth, 
divided  into  ninety-six  sheets.  This  general  atlas  was  afterward  reduced 
to  a  scale  of  a  two  hundred  and  fifty-thousandth,  which  was  published 
some  years  ago.  Another  work  of  great  value  has  also  been  undertaken 
on  the  ancient  and  modern,  physical,  political  and  military  conditions 
of  Northern  Italy,  which  is  divided  into  five  parts,  two  descriptive,  two 
historical,  and  one  graphic. 

SCHOOL  OP  ARTILLERY  m  THE  ARSENAL. — Men,  who  are  destined  to 
work  in  the  arsenal,receive  here  practical  instruction  in  their  art.  The  arse- 
nal contains :  1st,  a  chemical  and  metallurgical  Laboratory,  in  which 
analysis,  &c.,  are  performed ;  2d,  a  mineralogical  collection,  containing 
1100  specimens  of  minerals,  and  many  models  of  crystalization,  besides 
a  complete  collection  of  specimens  from  the  territory  of  Genoa ;  3d,  a 
collection  of  Philosophical  Apparatus,  containing  600  different  machines 
and  instruments,  partly  from  Puxy  and  Dumotier  of  Paris  and  partly  from 
Zest  and  Brabante  of  Turin  ;  4th,  a  library  containing  the  best  books  on 
Mathematics,  Natural  Philosophy,  Astronomy,  Geology,  Geography,  &c.; 
5th,  a  foundry  of  cannon,  which  includes  the  foundry  properly  so  called, 
the  atelier  of  modelers,  the  Hall  of  models,  the  ateliers  of  trepans  and  of 
engravers ;  6th,  the  lithographic  establishment ;  7th,  the  machine  shop ; 
8th,  a  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  arms  for  the  army  and  navy  ;  9th,  the 
atelier  of  bombardiers  ;  10th,  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  and  refinery 
of  saltpetre ;  llth,  a  forge  for  gun-barrels. 

ROYAL  CORPS  OF  THE  MILITARY  ENGINEERS. — This  is  another  scientific 
corps  of  the  army,  and  has  three  divisions :  1st,  the  engineers  and 
officers ;  2d,  the  sappers  and  miners ;  3d,  the  office  of  the  archives, — all 
under  the  command  of  a  Major-General.  It  is  their  duty  to  prepare  the 
designs  for  new  military  buildings,  and  to  keep  in  order  the  existing 
establishments. 

ROYAL  ARMORY,  (Armeria,  Beale.} — Among  the  establishments  in  rela- 
tion with  military  instruction  we  mention  the  Royal  Armory,  which  is 
an  extensive  collection  of  ancient  and  modern  arms,  and  especially  of 
those  used  in  the  middle  ages.  It  is  a  treasure  of  history,  of  military 
science  and  of  the  mechanical  fine  arts,  enriched  with  a  great  quantity  of 
specimens  remarkable  both  for  their  structure  and  ornaments,  embellished 
with  historical  designs  and  sculptures,  reliefs  and  bas-reliefs,  carved  and 
gilded.  There  are  arms  of  all  ages,  shields,  helmets,  cuirasses,  coats  of 
mail,  stSe!  waistcoats,  iron  armlets  and  greaves,  lances,  daggers,  clubs, 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  5*7 

bows,  swords,  and  guns  of  all  kinds  and  ages,  highly  interesting  to  mili- 
tary students.  There  is  a  rich  collection  of  Indian  weapons,  gath- 
ered by  Vidua  in  his  travels  through  Central  Asia,  which  was  increased 
by  the  Prince  of  Carignano,  with  many  implements  from  the  new  world. 
The  flags  which  are  unfolded  in. the  Armory  are  precious  monuments, 
which  recall  the  ancient  and  modern  glories  of  the  Sardinian  army. 
Here  also  is  a  valuable  collection  of  medals  and  coins,  in  which  is  written 
the  history  of  Sardinian  kings,  of  others  which  are  historical  monuments 
of  the  provinces  of  the  kingdom,  and  finally  of  coins  and  medals  of  Italy, 
from  the  fall  of  the  Empire  to  our  own  times. 

KING'S  LIBRARY,  (Billioteca  del  Re.)— This  contains  thirty  thousand 
volumes  of  the  best  editions  of  ancient  and  modern  works  on  history, 
travels,  arts,  economy,  etc.  Among  these  some  are  printed  on  parchment 
and  painted  in  miniature.  The  selections  of  military  works  is  complete, 
and  the  collection  of  manuscripts  rich.  We  may  mention,  among  these, 
a  collection  of  fifty-three  volumes  of  Atlases  containing  designs  for  the 
history  of  artillery  of  Europe,  by  Col.  Rouvroy ;  all  the  materials  which 
Frederick  the  Great  communicated  to  Algarotti  for  the  history  of  the 
seven  years'  war,  with  many  letters  of  that  king  to  its  author ;  the  only 
complete  copy  of  the  history  of  the  Arabs  from  their  origin  to  the  Cali- 
phat  of  Moawiyah,  by  Ebn-Kaldin;  and  finally,  many  codices  both  in 
parchment  and  papyrus,  Arabic,  Persian,  &c.  There  are  many  let- 
ters of  Emmanuel  Philibert,  of  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy,  of  Redi,  auto- 
graphs of  Napoleon,  and  of  some  of  his  generals.  There  we  find  a 
collection  of  two  thousand  ancient  designs,  among  which  twenty  by  Lio- 
nardo  da  Vinci,  some  by  Raphael,  Correggio,  Titian,  etc.  The  library 
possesses  moreover  a  beautiful  collection  of  Chinese  insects,  designed  and 
painted  in  miniature  on  silk  paper  by  Chinese  artists,  with  the  Chinese 
names  of  every  insect ;  and  a  collection  of  many  Chinese  miniatures, 
birds,  flowers,  plants,  dresses,  &c. 

ARCHIVES  OF  THE  STATE,  (Archhi  di  Stato,} — They  contain  treasures 
relative  to  the  history  of  the  country.  The  great  quantity  of  its  papers 
are  inclosed  in  beautifully  carved  cases,  classified  in  fine  order,  and  regis- 
tered in  excellent  catalogues.  To  the  Archives  there  is  united  a  library 
for  the  use  of  the  executive  departments,  which  is  enriched  by  many 
precious  manuscripts,  many  of  which  on  parchment,  and  especially  three 
missals  of  a  remote  antiquity,  which  are  considered  of  great  value  for 
the  excellence  of  the  designs  and  beauty  of  the  coloring  of  their  minia- 
tures. They  belong  to  the  age  of  Raphael.  There  are  in  the  library 
many  books  and  editions  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries. 

THE  ROYAL  ACADEMY  OF  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY  was  founded  in  Turin 
some  years  ago  by  the  most  prominent  physicians  of  the  country,  for 
promoting  the  progress  of  medicine,  surgery,  and  relative  sciences.  It  is 
composed  of  ordinary,  honorary,  and  corresponding  members,  the  first 
of  which  are  obliged  to  present  a  paper  every  year.  The  Academy  meets, 
twice  a  month,  to  hear  the  reading  of  papers  and  to  discuss  theoretical  and 
practical  subjects.  It  offers  annual  prizes  for  the  best  works  on  medical 
5 


58 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 


and  surgical  questions,  and  publishes  a  monthly  paper  and  yearly 
volumes  of  its  acts,  which  are  highly  esteemed  by  all  medical  societies  of 
Europe.  Connected  with  the  Academy  is  an  association  of  mutual  aid 
of  all  the  physicians  of  the  country,  who,  by  paying  an  annual  moderate 
fee,  have  right  to  a  pecuniary  allowance  in  case  of  their  sickness,  or  of 
other  embarrassing  circumstances.  The  Academy  and  the  association  arc 
in  a  flourishing  state,  and  in  the  way  to  more  extensive  operations. 

THE  ROYAL  ALBERT  ACADEMY  OF  FINE  ARTS  was  founded  in  1824  by 
Charles  Felix,  reformed  and  enriched  by  Charles  Albert,  who  gave  his  name 
to  the  institution.  Its  object  is  to  give  free  instruction  to  young  men  in  the 
art  of  design,  and  especially  in  the  arts  of  painting,  sculpture,  architecture 
and  engraving.  Its  officers  are  a  director  and  president,  a  secretary,  the 
first  painter  to  the  king,  ten  honorary  members,  fourteen  resident  pro- 
fessors, foreign  professors,  and  honorary  fellows.  The  schools  are  pre- 
paratory and  special:  the  preparatory  embraces,  1st,  the  first  and  second 
class  of  drawing ;  2d,  the  school  of  anatomy ;  3d,  of  statuary ;  4th,  of  nude 
figures ;  5th,  of  drapery ;  6th,  of  perspective ;  7th,  of  history  and  poetry. 
The  special  school,  in  which  the  pupils  enter  when  they  have  given  satis- 
factory proofs  of  their  sufficient  progress  in  the  preparatory  school,  and 
have  chosen  the  branch  of  art  to  which  they  prefer  to  devote  themselves, 
comprehends  1st,  the  school  of  painting;  2d,  of  architecture;  3d,  of 
sculpture ;  4th,  of  engraving ;  5th,  of  ornament. 

Examinations  and  rewards  promote  the  love  and  the  progress  of  the  arts. 
The  exhibitions  for  the  rewards  of  the  first  class,  which  consist  of  golden 
medals  and  a  sum  of  money,  take  place  every  three  years,  and  the 
works  of  all  artists  are  admitted.  The  rewards  of  the  second  class  con- 
sist of  silver  medals,  with  a  smaller  sum,  and  are  bestowed  every  six 
months  on  the  pupil,  who  has  exhibited  the  most  meritorious  work  in  that 
time.  Besides,  the  government  grants  three  pensions  to  the  three  best 
pupils  of  the  Academy,  to  enable  them  to  reside  and  to  study  in  Rome. 
These  pensions  are  granted  to  a  pupil  of  each  of  the  three  arts  of  painting, 
sculpture  and  architecture.  For  the  two  former  the  examination  is 
open  every  three  years,  for  the  latter  every  six  years.  The  pupils  so 
privileged  are  obliged  to  send  a  work  of  their  own  to  the  Academy,  every 
year.  THE  ROYAL  GALLERY  OF  PAINTINGS,  containing  many  master- 
pieces of  all  the  principal  schools,  affords  to  the  pupils  a  continu- 
ous means  of  improvement.  This  gallery  is  remarkable  especially  for 
the  excellent  collection  of  paintings  by  Piedmontese  artists  of  great  fame, 
as  Caravoglia,  Macrino.  Giovenone,  Molineri,  Caccia,  Olivieri  and  Gauden- 
zio  Ferrari,  all  of  whom  stand  side  by  side  with  Raphael,  Guido  Reni, 
Guercino,  Gentileschi,  Carlo  Dolce,  Crespi  and  Cigagni.  It  possesses 
also  originals  by  Titian,  Palma,  a  Magdalene  by  Paul  Veronese,  and 
many  works  of  Jacopo  da  Bassano  and  of  Canaletto.  The  foreign  schools 
are  represented  by  Mignard  and  Poussin  of  France,  by  Holbein  and  Al- 
bert Durer  of  Germany,  by  Velasquez  and  Murillo  of  Spain,  by  Paul  Potter 
and  Teniers,  Wouvermans  and  Van  Dyke  of  Holland  and  Flanders.  The 
Academy,  besides  an  excellent  collection  of  drawings  and  models, 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  59 

possesses  of  its  own  a  fine  gallery  of  paintings,  among  which  are  twenty- 
four  by  Gaudcnzio  Ferrari. 

PHILHARMONIC  ACADEMY  OF  TUKIN. — This  conservatorium,  or  school  of 
music,  was  founded  in  1815  by  a  few  young  men  with  a  modest  beginning, 
but  was  soon  after  increased  and  enriched  by  some  wealthy  benefactors 
and  by  the  generosity  of  the  kings.  Its  object  is  to  promote  the  study 
of  music  by  every  means,  especially  by  concerts  and  evening  parties,  and 
by  the  free  teaching  of  music.  Its  members  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
ordinary  and  aggregate  fellows.  The  ordinary  can  not  be  more  than 
one  hundred  and  fifty  in  number,  and  fill  their  vacancies  by  ballot. 
They  pay  an  entrance  and  an  annual  fee.  The  aggregate  fellows  are 
either  honorary  or  resident.  The  free  school  of  singing  is  directed  by 
the  Academy  by  the  medium  of  a  director  and  professors.  The  course 
occupies  six  years,  and  is  divided  into  as  many  classes.  Monthly,  quar- 
terly and  annual  examinations  afford  the  pupils  frequent  occasions  of 
showing  their  improvement,  and  of  gaining  honorary  medals.  Over  the 
school  for  girls  presides  a  committee  of  ladies,  who  visit  it  daily,  and  edu- 
cate those  who  are  from  the  lower  classes  in  the  politeness  and  elegance 
of  manners,  which  are  so  necessary  to  candidates  for  the  stage.  To 
diffuse  a  taste  for  music,  the  Academy  not  only  gives  free  instruction, 
but  often  opens  its  splendid  halls  for  concerts  and  evening  parties. 

PHILODRAMATIC  ACADEMY. — It  was  founded  in  1828,  and  proposes  not 
only  to  prepare  good  actors  for  the  stage,  but  more  to  educate  the  young 
of  both  sexes  in  the  art  of  delivering  public  speeches,  and  of  reading.  Its 
ordinary  members  are  thirty-five  in  number,  while  the  number  of 
honorary  members  is  undetermined. 

CACCIA'S  COLLEGE. — A  beneficent  man,  by  the  name  of  Caccia,  created  this 
college  and  endowed  it  with  a  large  property.  It  was  in  Pavia  until 
1820,  and  was  transferred  in  that  year  to  Turin.  It  supports  four  pupils, 
who  learn  the  principles  of  design  at  the  Royal  Academy  of  the  Fine 
Arts.  It  also  supports  in  Rome  three  pupils ;  two  for  sculpture,  one  for 
painting,  and  another  in  Milan,  in  engraving.  It,  moreover,  gives  free 
board  and  lodging  to  sixteen  young  men  from  the  province  of  Novara, 
during  the  whole  of  their  studies  at  the  university. 

ROYAL  COMMITTEES  FOR  THE  PROGRESS  OF  SCIENCES,  LETTERS  AND  ARTS. — 
Charles  Albert  created  in  1832  a  committee  of  antiquities  and  fine  arts, 
and  intrusted  to  it  the  office  of  suggesting  means  of  the  discovery  and 
preservation  of  all  objects  of  antiquity  and  fine  arts.  Another  committee, 
created  in  1833,  is  called  the  Royal  Deputation  for  researches  into  the 
history  of  the  country.  It  is  its  duty  to  publish  a  collection  of  inedited 
or  rare  works  in  connection  with  the  history  of  the  country,  and  a  diplo- 
matic code  of  the  kingdom.  This  committee  has,  since  the  time  of  its 
institution,  published  nine  huge  and  most  valuable  volumes,  folio,  with  the 
title  of  HistoricB  patrice  monumenta  edita  jussu  Regis  Caroli  Alberti. 
The  work  is  to  be  continued. 

A  third  committee  of  statistics,  created  in  1836,  is  intrusted  with  the 
collection  and  publication  of  all  statistics  of  the  kingdom,  with  the  aid  of 


g0  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

sub-committees  instituted  in  every  city.  This  committee  has  already 
published  many  volumes  on  the  subject,  and  next  year  will  undertake  a 
general  new  census  of  the  country. 

THE  ROYAL  ACADEMY  OF  AGRICULTURE  OF  TURD?  promotes  the  interests 
and  the  development  of  this  important  source  of  public  welfare,  discusses 
in  its  regular  meetings  subjects  relating  to  it,  and  receives  papers  and 
specimens  of  agricultural  productions  and  implements.  It  opens  yearly 
two  public  exhibitions,  one  of  flowers,  fruits,  and  every  kind  of  horticul- 
tural productions,  the  other  of  agricultural  implements,  and  gives  hono- 
rary prizes  for  the  best  specimens.  The  Academy  publishes  every  year 
its  transactions,  which  contain  valuable  papers,  and  really  substantially 
form  the  contemporaneous  history  of  Sardinian  agriculture.  The  atten- 
tion of  the  Academy  is  particularly  directed  to  the  cultivation  of  the  vine 
and  the  mulberry  tree,  and  to  the  best  method  of  making  wines  and  of 
raising  silk-worms,  which  constitute  two  of  the  most  important  staples 
of  the  agricultural  industry  of  the  country. 

THE  AGRICULTURAL  ASSOCIATION  has  for  its  object  the  promotion  of  ag- 
riculture and  arts  connected  with  it.  The  Association  holds  meetings, 
where  appropriate  subjects  are  publicly  discussed,  and  publishes  agricul- 
tural tracts  in  order  to  diffuse  among  the  people  a  knowledge  of  the 
soundest  principles,  and  the  best  systems  and  implements  of  cultivation, 
and  gives  prizes  for  the  best  specimens  of  agricultural  productions  and 
instruments.  It  possesses  a  good  museum  and  an  experimental  garden, 
and  publishes  a  monthly  agricultural  review  and  yearly  volumes  of  its 
annals. 

THE  CHAMBER  OF  AGRICULTURE  AND  COMMERCE  OF  TURIN  is  composed  of 
fifteen  members,  of  whom  four  must  be  landed  proprietors,  two  bankers, 
two  silk  manufacturers,  two  in  other  manufacturing  business  and  five 
merchants.  Its  duty  is  to  watch  over  the  progress  of  agriculture,  in- 
dustry and  commerce,  to  examine  the  obstacles  which  may  prevent  their 
development,  and  to  suggest  remedies.  The  Chamber  supports  free 
public  courses  of  Commercial  Jurisprudence  and  Political  Economy, 
which  are  attended  by  merchants,  clerks,  &c.  To  the  Chamber  is  at- 
tached the  Technical  Institute,  of  which  we  have  elsewhere  spoken.  It 
presides  over  the  national  exhibitions  of  industry,  which  take  place  in  Turin 
every  three  years.  The  constitution  and  objects  of  the  CHAMBERS  OF 
COMMERCE  AND  AGRICULTURE  OF  GENOA,  CHAMBERY  AND  NICE  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  Chamber  of  Turin. 

The  following  institutions  have  more  or  less  relation  to  those,  of  which 
we  have  already  given  an  account : 

THE  ROYAL  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES  OF  SAVOY,  in  Chambery. 

THE  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES  AND  ARTS  of  Alexandria. 

THE  ECONOMICAL  ASSOCIATION  of  Chiavari. 

THE  ACADEMY  OF  PHILOSOPHY  of  Genoa. 

THE  ASSOCIATION  FOR  THE  PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION,  established  in  Turin, 
and  ramified  throughout  the  kingdom. 

THE  ACADEMY  OF  PAINTING,  ARCHITECTURE,  ORNAMENT  AND  ENGRAVING 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  61 

of  Genoa,  to  which  courses  of  lectures  on  the  fine  arts  are  attached.  It 
supports  also  two  pupils  in  Rome  and  in  Florence,  for  instruction  in  paint- 
ing and  sculpture. 

THE  PHILHARMONIC  ASSOCIATION  of  Genoa. 

THE  PHILHARMONIC  DRAMATIC  LITERARY  ACADEMY  of  Cuneo. 

THE  PHILHARMONIC  POETIC  LITERARY  ACADEMY  of  Alba. 

THE  EOYAL  ASSOCIATION  OF  AGRICULTURE  AND  ECONOMY  of  Cagliari. 

THE  ASSOCIATION  OF  WORKMEN  AND  MECHANICS  FOR  THEIR  MUTUAL  IN- 
STUCTION  AND  AID,  which  is  to  be  found  in  almost  every  city. 

THE  ROYAL  COUNCIL  OF  THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  MINES,  AND  THE  ROYAL 
CORPS  OF  ENGINEERS  CONNECTED  WITH  THAT  COUNCIL. 

THE  ROYAL  CORPS  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS  FOR  THE  SUPERINTENDENCE  OF 
WATERS  AND  ROADS. 

THE  ASSOCIATION  FOR  THE  PROMOTION  OF  THE  FINE  ARTS  of  Turin. 

THE  ASSOCIATION  FOR  THE  PROMOTION  OF  GUNNERY  AND  SMALL-ARM  PRAC- 
TICE of  Turin,  intended  especially  for  the  instruction  of  the  National  Guard. 

VII.  THE  PRESS. — Though,  before  1848,  a  civil  and  ecclesiastical  censor- 
ship exerted  a  most  severe  and  absurd  control  over  all  kinds  of  publications, 
and  no  political  newspaper  was  allowed  in  the  country,  yet  even  at  that 
time  many  valuable  works  were  issued  from  the  Piedmontese  press,  both 
scientific  and  literary,  which  have  given  to  the  typographical  mechanics 
of  Sardinia  a  high  reputation  through  all  Italy.  The  constitution  of 
1848,  having  insured  to  the  country  absolute  freedom  of  the  press,  made 
it  a  powerful  instrument  of  education,  as  well  as  of  a  general  control  over 
all  acts  of  the  administration.  Indeed,  the  freedom  of  the  press  is  one 
of  the  most  important  of  the  real  benefits  derived  to  the  country  from  the 
constitution.  All  citizens  have  the  right  to  publish  whatever  they  may 
choose  on  whatever  subject,  and  the  government  has  no  power  of  control 
over  any  publication ;  writers,  as  well  as  publishers,  being  only  responsi- 
ble before  the  courts  of  justice,  which  have  to  pronounce  their  sentences 
after  the  verdict  of  a  jury,  in  the  causes  concerning  their  offenses  against 
the  laws  of  the  country.  Indeed,  editors  of  political  papers  can  even 
throw  this  responsibility  on  any  person,  whom  they  choose  to  appoint  as 
a  responsible  trustee  of  their  paper.  The  freedom  of  the  press  is  so  un- 
limited, that  papers  are  to  be  found  which  not  only  stand  in  strong  and 
systematic  opposition  to  the  administration,  but  which  propose,  as  their 
object,  the  propagation  of  the  most  radical  doctrines  against  the  estab- 
lished government ;  some  proposing  to  return  to  an  absolute  monarchy 
under  the  guardianship  of  the  church,  and  others  to  supersede  the  present 
constitution  by  establishing  republican  institutions  in  the  country.  We 
must  say,  however,  that  these  papers  do  not  receive  great  encouragement 
from  the  people,  who,  being  of  a  nature  especially  practical  and  positive, 
have  no  taste  for  political  theories  beyond  all  possibility  of  realization  in 
the  present  condition  of  Europe,  and  much  less  for  the  anachronism  of 
the  middle  ages,  which  ignorant  or  interested  parties  would  substitute 
for  the  institutions  born  of  present  civilization.  The  following  are  the 
principal  daily  papers  published  in  Turin : 


go  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

THE  GAZZETTA  PIEDMOXTESE  is  the  official  paper  of  the  government,  val- 
uable for  its  publication  of  all  the  documents  relative  to  the  administration, 
and  of  the  full  debates  of  the  Parliament. 

THE  OPIXIOXE,  a  paper  representing  the  majority  of  the  House  of  Dep- 
uties, and  supporting  the  politics  of  the  administration.  It  supports  also, 
with  great  skill  and  strength,  the  emancipation  of  Italy  from  the  dominion 
of  Austria,  and  its  correspondences  from  Lombardy  and  Venice  give  the 
most  reliable  accounts  of  those  provinces.  Among  its  contributors  we 
mention  G.  Dina,  a  learned  and  talented  young  man,  who  has  the  main 
direction  of  the  paper. 

THE  BHUTTO  is  the  exponent  of  the  most  advanced  and  liberal  party  of 
Sardinia ;  it  expresses  the  liberal  opposition  of  the  Lower  House,  and 
while  accepting  and  supporting  the  present  monarchical  representative 
government,  struggles  for  a  broader  interpretation  and  more  liberal  con- 
struction of  the  political  constitution.  Independent  of  the  government, 
to  which  it  is  in  a  certain  sense  opposed,  it  pleads  with  dignity  and  power 
the  cause  of  freedom  and  nationality.  The  Diritto  is  directed  by  a  few 
of  the  members  of  the  liberal  party  of  the  House,  among  whom  we  may 
instance  the  most  important  and  active,  L.  Valeric,  whose  life  has  been 
long  since  devoted  to  the  moral  progress  of  the  country,  and  engaged  by 
every  means  in  promoting  the  independence  of  Italy.  Few  men  in  Sar- 
dinia have  such  claims,  as  M.  Valerio,  to  the  esteem  and  affection  of  his 
countrymen. 

THE  UNIONE,  without  being  connected  with  any  political  party,  is  the 
organ  of  the  general  feeling  of  the  country  on  the  subject  of  the  emanci- 
pation of  Italy  from  Austria,  as  well  as  from  Papal  dominion.  Bianchi 
Giovini,  an  able  and  learned  politician,  who  may  indeed  be  considered  as 
the  best  qualified  writer  on  ecclesiastical  matters  relative  to  civil  power, 
edits  the  Unione ;  which  holds  a  high  standing  among  other  papers  for 
its  sound  and  positive  doctrines,  and  for  its  calm  and  scientific  handling 
of  its  subjects.  Substantially,  freedom  and  independence  are  the  principles 
of  which  the  Unione  is  the  faithful  exponent. 

THE  GAZZETTA  DEL  POPOLO,  the  smallest  and  the  cheapest  of  all  the 
newspapers,  exerts  the  greatest  and  most  extensive  influence  on  the  less 
educated  classes  of  people,  for  which  it  is  particularly  published.  Its 
objects,  which  do  not  differ  substantially  from  those  of  the  Diritto 
and  Unione,  are  pursued  with  remarkable  shrewdness  and  power. 
The  Gazaetta,  enjoying  a  larger  circulation  than  any  other  paper  in 
the  country,  does  good  service  to  the  cause  of  civilization,  in  its  endeav- 
ors to  excite  in  the  masses  the  feeling  of  their  dignity  and  the  necessity 
of  their  emancipation  from  the  grasp  of  superstition,  as  well  as  the  neces- 
sity of  insuring  independence  of  their  country.  Govean,  Borella  and 
Bottero,  the  bold  and  able  editors  of  the  Gazzetta,  may  be  called  true 
missionaries  of  freedom  in  Sardinia,  and  of  national  independence 
throughout  Italy. 

Besides  these,  there  are  published  in  Turin  many  other  daily  papers, 
which  are  more  or  less  conducted  in  the  same  spirit  as  the  above  ;  such 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  G3 

are  the  INDIPENDENTE,  the  ESPERO,  the  STAFFETTA  and  the  FISCHIETTO, 
which  very  successfully  maintains  a  humorous  character,  and  for  its  wit 
as  well  as  for  its  caricatures,  may  compare  with  Punch  and  Chari^iri. 
The  ARMONIA  supports  the  interests  of  the  church,  and  it  is  natural 
enough,  that  it  longs  for  the  restoration  of  the  influence  of  the  clergy  on 
the  government,  as  the  only  ark  for  the  safety  of  its  party. 

In  Genoa  there  is  published  an  official  and  daily  paper,  (GAZZETTA  DI 
GENOVA,)  and  besides  the  CORRIERE  MERCANTILE,  which  represents  the 
political  party  of  the  government  and  the  interests  of  that  city  and  prov- 
ince, and  the  ITALIA  DEL  POPOLO,  the  organ  of  the  Republican  party, 
which  in  its  way  pleads  the  cause  of  freedom  and  independence.  In  all 
the  other  principal  cities  of  the  Kingdom,  there  is  published  at  least  one 
paper,  more  or  less  devoted  to  the  same  principles  held  by  the  great  ma- 
jority of  the  press  of  Turin.  Such  are  the  GAZZETTE  DE  SAVOIE  of 
Chambery,  the  GAZZETTA  POPOLARE  of  Cagliari,  the  GAZZETTA  DELLE 
ALPI  of  Cuneo,  the  TEMPO  of  Casale,  the  VESSILLO  DELLA  LIBERTA  of 
Vercelli,  the  PENSIERO  of  Oneglia,  the  CITTADIXO  of  Asti,  &c. 

Some  branches  of  arts,  industry  and  commerce,  scientific  and  literary 
departments,  are  represented  by  papers  and  reviews ;  like  the  GAZZETTA 
DEI  TRIBUNALI,  the  GIORNALE  DELLE  ARTI  E  INDUSTRIE,  the  GAZETTA  MEDICA, 

the  BOLLETTINO  DELLE  STRADE    FERRATE,  the  PlRATA,  the  RlVISTA  MILITARE, 

the  SECOLO  XIX,  and  above  all  the  RIVISTA  CONTEMPORANEA,  a  monthly 
scientific  and  literary  Review  of  the  highest  character  not  only  in  Sardinia, 
but  in  all  Italy,  and  which  is  supported  by  contributions  of  the  best  writers 
of  the  country. 

VIII.     EDUCATIONAL  PRESS  AND  SCHOLASTIC  BOOKS. 
The  educational  movement,  which  began  in  Sardinia  about  fifteen  years 
ago,  was  produced  and  directed  by  some  pedagogical  works  of  great 
merit,  published  both  in  Piedmont,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  Peninsula. 
Among  the  writers  who  have  contributed  most  to  this  educational  progress 
of  Italy,   we    may   mention  Rosmini,   Lambruschini,   Mayer,   Thouar, 
Sacchi,  Parravicini,  Cantu,   Aporti,  Fontana,  Rosi,  and  Taverna,  all  of 
whom  belonged  to  other  States  of  Italy,  except  Rosmini,  who  lived  in 
Sardinia.     In    Piedmont,     however,     as    early  as  in   1840,    Vincenzo 
Troja,  under  the  direction  of  the  Magistrate  delta  Riforma  agli  Studj,  pre- 
pared a  manual  for  teachers,  and   a  new  programme  for  elementary 
schools,  both  of  which  were  published  under  the  title  of  Istruzione  ai 
maestri  delle  scuole  elementari.     In  this  manual  the  principles  of  pedagogic 
art  were  laid  down,  the  object  of  primary  schools  defined,  a  new  system 
of  reading  introduced,  and  above  all,  instruction  graduated  according 
to  different  classes  of  pupils,  and  corporeal  punishments  abolished.     Prof. 
Troja  prepared  afterward  two  Reading  Books,  which  were  approved  by 
the  Magistra-io,  and  prescribed  for  all  primary  schools.     Though  imper- 
fect works,  these  books  changed  entirely  the  method  of  teaching,  aroused 
in  the  minds  of  teachers  a  feeling  of  the  necessity  of  further  and  deeper 
investigation  on  didactic  method,  and  brought  into  the  schools  the  educa- 
tional systems,   which  had   already  obtained  favor    in  Germany   and 


g4  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

Switzerland,  through  the  works  of  Pestalozzi  and  Girard.  It  is  just  to  add, 
that  this  educational  movement  was  greatly  aided  by  the  labors  of  some 
high  minded  citizens,  who,  though  entangled  at  every  step  by  a  petty 
censorship,  and  troubled  in  their  efforts  by  a  suspicious  government, 
strenuously  fought  on  behalf  of  human  civilization,  by  promoting  by 
every  means  the  educational  progress  of  the  country.  Among  these  we 
will  mention  C.  BONCOMPAGNI,  afterward  minister  of  public  instruction, 
and  more  particularly  LORENZO  VALERIO,  above  named,  who  well  sup- 
ported that  liberal  movement  in  his  highly  philanthropic  paper,  Letture 
Popolari.  This  journal,  which  was  soon  after  abolished  by  the  govern- 
ment, sprang  up  more  powerful,  under  the  name  of  Letture  difamiglia, 
continuing  most  efficiently  the  noble  work  of  its  predecessor. 

After  the  common  efforts  of  the  liberal  party  had  been  somewhat  suc- 
cessful, after  public  opinion  grew  so  strong  in  favor  of  educational  reform, 
as  to  obtain  from  the  government  the  establishment  of  schools  for  teach- 
ers, and  the  official  acknowledgment  of  the  necessity  of  that  reform, 
works  on  methodic  art,  and  other  educational  subjects,  appeared  from 
every  quarter  in  such  number,  that  it  became  quite  difficult  to  select  the 
few  of  real  merit  from  the  mass  of  the  indifferent  or  paltry.  In  this  con- 
dition of  things,  the  government  in  order  to  prevent  a  general  confusion 
which  would  have  inevitably  succeeded  in  the  schools  of  the  country,  and 
to  prevent  useless  expenditures  by  parents,  renewed  the  former  ordinance, 
by  which  no  book  should  be  introduced  into  the  schools,  before  approved 
by  the  supreme  council  of  instruction.  The  prescribed  list  of  the-  text- 
books for  primary  and  secondary  studies  is  the  following : 

Elementary  Course. — Sillabario  graduate  di  V.  Troja,  Primo  librodi  lettura  ;  Secondo 
libro  di  lettura;  Catechismo  della  Diocesi ;  Schmid,Racconti  della  storia sacra  ;  Grain- 
matica  elernentare  Italiana  di  A.  P.;  Compendio  rli  aritmetica  per  un  fratello  delle 
Scuole  Cristiane  ;  Nozioni  compendiose  di  geografia;  Metodo  e  quaderni  di  Scrit- 
tura  di  Delpino  e  Trossi.  Course  of  Grammar — Classics :  Epitome  Historiae  sacrai ; 
Epitome  histories  Graecas  ;  Epitome  historias  Romans,  seu  de  viribus  illustribus  urbis 
Romae;  Cornelii  Nepotis  opera;  Phaedri  Fabulae  ;  Ciceronis  Epistolas  ad  familiares  ; 
Ciceronis  Laeliussive  de  amicitia  ;  Nova  anthologia  Latina,  sect,  prima;  Nuova  anto- 
logia  Italiana,  sez.  prima ;  Text-books :  Compendio  del  nuovo  metodo,  oppure  delhi 
gramrnatica  Latina  ;  Corticelli  regole  edosservazioni  della  lingua  Toscana  ;  Storia  sacra 
dell'  A.  e  N.  Testamento  del  P.  Secco ;  Compendio  della  Storia  della  R.  Casa 
Savojai  Nozioni  compendiose  di  geografia ;  Course  of  Rhetoric — Classics :  Caesaris 
Commentaru  &c.;  Ciceronis  Orationes  Selects;  Virgilii  Georgicon  and  Aeneidos  ; 
Horatii  carmina  selecta  and  Ars  poetica  ;  Nova  anthologia  Latina  sect,  secunda  ;  An- 
thologia Graeca  ;  Tasso  Gerusalemme  Liberata  ;  Alfieri  Saul ;  Casa  Galateo  ed  orazioni ; 
Nuova  antologia  Italiana,  sez  seconda  ;  Text-books  :  Grammatica  Greca  di  Burnouf — 
Trattato  dell'  arte  poetica — Cellarii  Breviarium  antiq.  Rom.  cum  appendice  Juvcncii  de 
Diis  ;  Marta,  trattat  di  Aritemtica.  For  the  lectures  on  History  and  Belles-Lettres, 
the  prescribed  programmes  are  followed.  Course  of  Philosophy — Classics  :  Ciceronis 
De  Officiis,  St.  Augustini  Soliloquia,  Nova  Anthologia  Latina,  (sect,  tertia,)  Nuova 
Antologia  Italiana,  (Sezione  terza  ;)  Text-books:  Marta,  Element!  di  Algebra  e  Ge- 
ometria  :  Botto,Elementi  di  Fisica  Sperimentale.  For  the  lectures  on  Logic,  Meta- 
physics, Moral  Philosophy,  and  Natural  History,  see  the  programmes. 

We  do  not  venture  to  say,  that  Sardinia  possesses  excellent  books  for 
its  schools,  nor  that  the  selections  of  the  Government  could  not  be  better. 
On  the  contrary,  we  admit  that  there  is  a  decided  lack  in  this  branch  of 
literature,  especially  for  elementary  schools.  There  are,  however,  some 
books  which  are  of  a  superior  character,  as  Feccia's  elementary  books, 
and  the  Elementi  di  Logica  e  Metqfisica,  by  PIER  ANTONIO  CORTE,  and 
the  Elementi  di  Etic-a,  by  the  same  writer,  which  are  rightly  considered 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  65 

as  the  best  text-books  of  the  philosophical  course,  and  as  such  adopted 
by  the  best  colleges.  Philosophy  is  greatly  indebted  for  its  progress  in 
Sardinia  to  Professor  Corte,  who,  in  connection  with  a  few  others,  under- 
took many  years  ago  to  reform  this  study,  and  succeeded  in  delivering 
the  university  of  Turin  and  its  colleges  from  the  influence  of  the  sen- 
sualist doctrine,  which  for  a  long  time  had  prevailed.  Prof.  Corte  is  also 
author  of  a  valuable  Latin  philosophical  Reader :  Anthologia  ex  M.  T. 
Cicerone,  et  L.  Annaeo  Seneca,  cura  et  studio  Petri  Antonii  Oorte, 
in  usum  Philosophic  Studiosorum  concinnata. 

Political  papers  often  treat  ably  the  subject  of  educational  reform,  and 
thus  many  valuable  ideas  find  their  way  into  the  public  mind.  As  for 
special  educational  papers,  the  monthly  Journal  of  the  Association  for 
the  advancement  of  Education,  which  was  for  many  years  published  in 
Turin,  contained  valuable  writings  in  all  branches  of  pedagogic  and  didac- 
tic science.  But  it  having  some  years  ago  closed  its  publications,  it  was 
resumed,  under  the  name  of  the  Institutore,  a  semi-monthly  Review, 
edited  for  the  benefit  of  teachers  by  Professor  BERTI,  to  whose  labors 
the  cause  of  public  education  is  much  indebted.  Prof.  D.  Berti  is  one  of 
the  youngest  and  ablest  members  of  the  Parliament,  and  many  important 
improvements  in  the  educational  system,  we  doubt  not,  will  be  achieved 
by  his  talents  and  devotion  to  the  country.  With  him  is  associated  G.  A. 
RAYNERI,  professor  of  Methodology  in  the  University  of  Turin,  whose 
public  lectures  on  pedagogy  are  of  high  standing  and  of  great  value  to 
the  students  of  this  course.  Prof.  Rayneri  is  the  author  of  an  excellent 
book,  Principii  della  Metodica. 

XI.  ANTONIO  ROSMINI  CONSIDERED  AS  THE  PHILOSOPHER  OF  PEDAGOGY,  AND 
AS  AN  EDUCATOR. — All  the  most  important  works  or  writings,  all  the  most 
effectual  lectures  which  have  been  published  or  delivered  in  Italy,  and  es- 
pecially in  Piedmont,  during  the  last  twelve  years,  whether  on  methodic 
science  or  on  didactic  art,  either  derived  their  foundations  or  their 
doctrines  from  the  scientific  principles,  which  were  laid  down  in  the  im- 
mortal works  of  one  of  the  greatest  men  of  our  age,  ANTONIO  ROSMINI.  It 
may  be  allowed  to  the  writer  of  this  paper  to  introduce  to  the  acquaint- 
ance of  American  readers  the  venerated  name  of  this  great  philosopher, 
a  name  which  recalls  to  his  mind  the  sweetest  recollections  of  his  life,  and 
excites  in  his  heart  the  deepest  grief  for  his  untimely  death,  which  de- 
prived Italy  of  one  of  her  noblest  sons,  and  science  of  one  of  its  most 
gifted  devotees.  Devoted  as  a  priest,  refined  as  a  scholar,  sound  as  a 
statesman,  sublime  as  a  thinker,  humble  as  a  Christian,  and  bold  as  a 
philosopher,  Rosmini  united  in  himself  in  a  high  degree  many  qualities, 
any  of  which  would  be  sufficient  to  convey  to  posterity  the  name  of  its 
possessor.  The  acuteness  and  breadth  of  his  mind  were  only  equaled 
by  the  extent  of  his  learning,  and  by  the  refinement  of  his  taste.  With 
the  synthetic  power  of  Dante  and  with  the  analytical  faculties  of  Thomas 
Aquinas,  his  mind  embraced  all  human  knowledge  in  its  unity  and  uni- 
versality, with  the  view  of  erecting  a  philosophical  Encyclopaedia,  which 
was  to  be  derived  from  one  principle  and  divided  into  different  branches, 


66  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

according  to  their  logical  order.  Of  this  Encyclopaedia  he  had  published 
some  twenty  volumes,  in  which  science  is  founded  on  a  new  and  immova- 
ble basis,  and  developed  with  such  a  deep,  broad,  and  original  survey,  that 
few  philosophers,  either  in  ancient  or  modern  times,  can  be  compared  to 
him  in  this  respect.  In  his  religious  feelings,  though  a  sincere  believer  and 
enlightened  apostle  of  the  Catholic  church,  in  which  he  was  born  and  edu- 
cated, yet  he  did  not  approve,  nay  openly  condemned  the  excesses  of  the 
clergy,  and  whatever  abuses  he  might  have  found  in  the  church.  Hence 
the  severe  trials  to  which  he  was  submitted  under  the  influence  of 
extreme  parties  of  both  sides.  But  the  strictness  of  Rosmini's  life  and 
the  holy  charity  with  which  he  was  endowed  secured  him  the  blessedness, 
which  arises  from  the  contemplation  of  truth,  and  the  practice  of  benev- 
olence. Tolerant  of  all  opinions,  and  respectful  to  all  men,  though  dis- 
senting from  him,  despising  all  honors  which  the  world  could  bestow  upon 
him,  giving  up  to  charitable  objects  the  large  fortune  which  he  had  in- 
herited from  his  family,  Rosmini  showed  himself  a  true  follower  of  him, 
in  the  faith  of  whom  he  lived  and  died.  He  ended  his  life  in  1855,  at 
Stresa,  on  the  Lago  Maggiore,  at  the  age  of  fifty-eight  years. 

Considering  Rosmini  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  education,  we 
shall  not  enter  into  any  account  of  his  immortal  works  on  Ideology,  Log- 
ic, moral  and  political  Sciences,  Anthropology,  Psychology,  Philosophy 
of  Jurisprudence,  &c.  We  will  only  mention  his  book  "on  Christian 
Education"  his  essay  "on  Unity  of  Education"  and  his  Catechism  ar- 
ranged in  accordance  with  the  ideological  order,  with  a  valuable  preface 
on  general  method  of  teaching.  He  had  commenced  a  great  work  on 
Pedagogy,  of  which  there  were  to  be  three  volumes,  when  death  inter- 
rupted his  labors.  The  first  part  of  this  work,  which  is  almost  finished, 
is,  "On  the  fundamental  principle  of  Methodology,  and  on  some  of  its 
applications  to  Human  Education."  The  philosopher  establishes  here  a 
principle,  which  he  expresses  in  the  following  formula  :  "  Those  objects 
must  be  first  presented  to  human  mind,  which  belong  to  the  first  order 
of  intellectual  acts :  then  the  objects  of  the  second  order,  then  those  of 
the  third,  and  so  on  successively,  so  that  you  shall  never  lead  the  child 
to  an  act  of  the  second  order,  before  he  is  master  of  those  of  the  first, 
and  so  on  in  regard  to  the  acts  of  the  third,  and  other  superior  degrees." 
This  principle  is  derived  from  the  doctrines  of  Rosmini  on  Ideology  and  Log- 
ic, and  is  founded  on  the  very  nature  of  the  human  mind,  which  devel- 
ops itself  gradually,  so  that  a  law  of  gradation  constitutes  the  principle 
of  methodic  and  didactic  art.  This  gradation  depends  on  the  gradation 
of  mental  acts  and  objects,  viz.:  of  ideas,  which  are  presented  to  the 
mind,  and  which  are  naturally  classified  according  to  a  necessary  and 
unfailing  order. 

Then  applying  this  principle  to  the  education  of  children,  Rosmini  un- 
dertook to  classify  and  to  analyze  their  intellectual  acts,  showing  the 
method  of  training  them  in  each  order  of  these  acts,  as  well  as  of  their 
faculties  and  objects.  In  this  view  he  distinguished  many  ages  of  child- 
hood, of  which  he  follows  the  gradual  development  and  examines  the 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  g* 

different  laws,  which  ought  to  preside  over  their  education.  We  will  not 
attempt  any  analysis  of  this  work,  which,  though  unfinished,  will  be  a 
great  addition  to  pedagogical  science,  whenever  it  shall  be  published. 
We  may  add,  however,  that  Rosmini,  though  he  could  not  perfect  his 
greatest  work  on  Pedagogy,  yet  he  gave  a  decided  impulse  to  educational 
researches  by  his  psychologic  and  anthropologic  discoveries,  in  which  the 
human  faculties  were  more  sagaciously  than  ever  before  described  in  their 
nature  and  origin,  their  offices  declared,  their  acts  defined,  their  natural 
order  pointed  out,  the  laws  of  their  development  fixed,  their  stimuli  clas- 
sified, and  the  conditions  of  their  working  established.  Thus  Rosmini 
revealed  to  educators  the  organization  and  the  structure  of  the  subject, 
the  faculties  of  which  they  are  called  to  develop  in  their  natural  order 
and  harmony,  and,  by  his  ideologic  theories,  cast  a  new  light  on  the  nature 
of  truth,  beauty  and  virtue,  which  constitute  the  objects  at  which  all 
education  must  aim. 

But  Rosmini  rendered  great  service  to  the  cause  of  education,  not  only 
as  the  philosopher  of  pedagogy,  but  yet  more  as  one  of  the  most  effectual 
educators  of  the  country.  With  this  object  he  founded  and  supported 
by  his  own  means  an  institution  of  clergymen  and  laymen,  ( Tfie  Charity 
Association,)  who  are  bound  to  devote  themselves  to  all  kinds  of  charita- 
ble works,  and,  above  all,  to  the  education  of  youth.  Thus  he  was  able 
to  open  many  elementary  schools,  asylums,  evening  and  Sunday 
schools,  not  only  in  Piedmont,  but  in  Switzerland  and  in  England, 
which  were  managed  by  teachers  under  his  direction  and  control, — 
all  of  which  he  was  able  to  see  flourishing  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  To  provide  his  schools  with  good  teachers,  he  founded 
in  his  institution  normal  colleges,  with  the  object  of  giving  a 
thorough  instruction  in  method  to  those,  who  intended  to  devote  them- 
selves to  elementary  schools.  The  students  of  these  colleges  are  divided 
into  two  classes,  in  one  of  which  teachers  of  common  schools  are  prepared, 
in  the  other  professors  of  method  are  trained.  The  elementary  schools, 
within  a  certain  limit,  depend  on  a  central  college,  and  their  teachers  are 
obliged  to  repair  to  it  during  their  vacations,  in  order  to  confer  with  their 
companions  on  the  management  and  improvements  relating  to  their 
schools.  To  each  normal  college  is  annexed  a  boarding  establishment  for 
the  pupils  of  the  elementary  school,  in  which  the  students  of  the  college 
learn  the  practice  of  didactic  art. 

He  showed  a  similar  interest  in  the  education  of  girls,  which  he  be- 
lieved of  no  less  importance  than  that  of  boys.  With  the  object  of  pro- 
moting it,  he  founded  also  an  institution  of  young  ladies,  whom  he  called 
Sisters  of  Providence,  whom  he  educated  in  the  art  of  teaching  and 
appointed  to  elementary  schools  for  girls,  and  to  the  many  infant  asylums 
intrusted  to  his  care  in  Piedmont,  in  Switzerland  and  England. 

No  man  indeed  in  Italy  has  done  so  much  for  the  progress  of  education, 
as  well  as  of  philosophical  sciences,  as  Rosmini.  His  doctrines  may  be  dis- 
cussed and  disputed,  but  his  life  commands  the  admiration  of  all,  who 
feel  an  interest  in  the  cause  of  human  civilization.  He  felt  that  the  life  of 


68 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 


thought,  which  was  so  active  within  him,  was  not  a  perfect  life ;  thence 
he  endeavored  to  unite  in  himself  the  highest  contemplation  to  the  most 
extensive  action,  and  this  he  directed  to  the  education  of  clergymen, 
whom  he  tried  to  bring  to  that  spirituality  of  religion,  which  too  often 
is  lost  in  the  formalities  of  their  profession,  and  to  the  education  of 
children,  in  whom  he  was  able  to  read  more  simply  and  purely  the 
history  of  human  nature. 

To  enable  our  readers  to  avail  themselves  of  the  philosophical  researches 
of  Rosmini,  we  add  a  catalogue  of  his  principal  works,  which  contain 
treasures  of  philosophical  truth  and  analytical  observations,  and  present 
one  of  the  best  expositions  of  the  principles  of  pedagogic  and  didactic 
sciences. 

LIST  OF  THE  WORKS  OP  ANTONIO  ROSMINI. 

1.  INTRODUCTION  TO  PHILOSOPHY,  1  vol. 

2.  A  NEW  ESSAY  ON  THE  ORIGIN  OP  IDEAS,  3  vols. 

3.  THE  RESTORATION  op  PHILOSOPHY  IN  ITALY,  1  vol. 

4.  LOGIC,  1  vol. 

5.  THEODICY,  1  vol. 

6.  PSYCHOLOGY,  2  vols. 

7.  PRINCIPLES  OF  MORAL  SCIENCE.    A  COMPARATIVE  HISTORY  op  MORAL 

SYSTEMS,  1  vol. 

8.  ANTHROPOLOGY  IN  RELATION  TO  MORAL  SCIENCE,  1  vol. 

9.  A  TREATISE  ON  MORAL  CONSCIENCE,  1  vol. 

10.  PHILOSOPHY  OF  NATURAL  RIGHT,  2  vols. 

11.  PHILOSOPHY  OF  POLITICS,  1  vol.     Containing,    1st.    A   work  on  the  principal 

causes  of  the  preservation  and  ruin  of  Human  Societies.     2d.  A  work  on  Society 
and  its  Objects. 
12   MISCELLANEA,  6  vols. 

INEDITED   WORKS. 

1.  THEOSOPHY.    Containing  Ontology,  Cosmology  and  Theology,  3  vols. 

2.  PEDAGOGY,  1  vol. 

3.  METHODOLOGY,  2  vols. 

4.  PHILOSOPHY  OF  LITERATURE,  1  vol. 

5.  PHILOSOPHY  OF  POLITICS,  2  vols. 

6.  SUPERNATURAL  ANTHROPOLOGY,  4  vols. 

7.  A  PHILOSOPHICAL  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  GOSPEL  OF  ST.  JOHN. 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  69 

AN  ACT  ORGANIZING  THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  AND  ITS 
AUTHORITIES,  PASSED  IN  FEBRUARY,  1857. 

CHAPTER  I. — General  Provisions. 

1.  Instruction  is  either  public  or  private.     The  minister  of  public  instruction  directs 
the  former,  and  promotes  its  progress;  while  he  watches  over  the  latter  in  its  rela- 
tions to  morals,  hygiene,  political  institutions,  and  public  order. 

2.  Public  instruction  is  divided  into  three  branches ;   elementary,  secondary,  and 
superior. 

3.  The  existing  laws,  determining  the  characteristics  of  public  and  private  schools, 
shall  be  still  enforced.  (1.) 

4.  The  public  institutions  and  schools  of  learning  and  education,  (with  the  exception 
of  military,  as  well  as  nautical  institutions  and  schools,  which  depend  on  the  minister 
of  war,)  and  all  the  authorities,  to  whom  is  intrusted  the  direction  and  inspection  of  the 
same,  according  to  the  enactments  of  the  present  bill,  shall  depend  on  the  ministry  of 
public  instruction. 

5.  In  public  schools  intrusted  to  religious  corporations,  legally  admitted  into  the 
state,  the  appointments  of  directors,  professors,  and  teachers,  either  male  or  female, 
shall  be  made  by  the  authorities  of  the  state,  on  the  nomination  of  the  same  corporations. 
But  the  candidates  must  prove  themselves  competent  to  occupy  the  places  for  which 
they  will  be  proposed ;  therefore  they  shall  pass  the  examinations,  and  conform  them- 
selves to  the  other  rules  and  duties  prescribed  by  the  by-laws. 

6.  It  shall  belong  exclusively  to  the  authorities  of  public  instruction  to  enforce  the 
discipline  of  public  schools,  to  collate  the  academic  degrees,  to  install  collegiate  doctors 
of  the  faculties,  and  directors,  professors  and  teachers  in  the  schools,  which  depend 
upon  the  minister  of  public  instruction.  (2.) 

7.  The  special  acts  relative  to  superior,  secondary  and  elementary  instruction,  shall 
determine  the  public  regulations  for  private  schools,  and  the  rules  according  to  which 
the  government  shall  supervise  them.     The  same  law  shall  contain  provisions,  accord- 
ing to  which,  provincial  and  municipal  corporations  shall  have  an  effective  share  in  the 
direction  of  their  own  schools  and  institutions.     Meanwhile,  citizens,  who  shall  have 
fulfilled  all  conditions  enacted  by  law,  in  order  to  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  professors 
or  teachers  in  the  public  institutions  of  secondary  and  elementary  instruction,  shall 
be  allowed  henceforth  to  open  and  conduct  private  institutions  of  the  branch  and 
degree  for  which  they  have  obtained  their  certificate. 

8.  Till  said  special  acts  shall  be  enacted,  all  private  schools  and  institutions  of 
learning  and  education,  either  for  boys  or  girls,  directed  either  by  laymen  or  clergy- 
men, shall  conform  themselves  to  existing  laws.     The  minister  of  public  instruction 
shall  continue  to  supervise  them  by  means  of  his  officers  ;  and,  should  the  directors  of 
those  institutions  refuse  to  conform,  or,  in  fact,  should  not  conform  themselves  to  said 
laws,  the  minister  shall  have  the  power  of  closing  them  by  a  special  decree,  after 
having  obtained  the  consent  of  the  Supreme  Council,  and  heard  the  defendant  director. 
In  urgent  cases,  after  having  heard  the  Council,  he  shall  have  the  power  of  suspending, 
by  his  own  authority,  the  director  from  his  office,  and  also  of  closing  the  school  or 
institution,  till  a  definite  provision  shall  be  made  as  above. 

9.  The   courses    followed    in    seminaries,    or   in   ecclesiastical  or   religious  col- 
leges, of  whatever  denomination,  not  exclusively  for  ecclesiastical  education,  shall  be 
considered  invalid  for  admission  to  courses,  examinations,  and  academic  degrees  of 
public  schools,  unless  they  conform  themselves  to  the  by-laws  enacted  for  public 
schools.     In  every  case,  these  establishments  shall  always  be  submitted  to  the  super- 
vision of  the  government.  (3.) 

10.  Religious  instruction  and  education  in  public  institutions  and  schools  shall  be 
founded  on  the  Catholic  religion.     Special  acts  and  by-laws  shall  determine  the  rules 
to  be  followed  in  the  religious  training  of  Catholic  pupils.     The  religious  training  and 
instruction  of  dissenting  pupils  shall  be  left  to  their  parents.  (4.) 

CHAPTER  II. — A.     Authorities,  which  preside  over  Public  Instruction. 

11.  Under  the  presidency  of  the  minister,  a  Supreme  Council  of  public  instruction  is 
instituted ;  a  legal  counselor,  a  general  inspector  of  secondary  schools,  a  general  ir 
spector  of  elementary  and  normal  schools,  and  two  more  inspectors   of  secondary 
schools,  of  whom  one  for  scientific,  the  other  for  literary  branches,  are  attached 
ministry.     The  minister  shall  provide  the  technical  schools  with  a  special  inspec 

In  the  principal  provincial  cities,  there  shall  reside  a  provincial  scholastic  deputi  ion, 
a  royal  scholastic  superintendent,  (Regio  Proveditore  agli  studi.)  and  a  provincial  in- 
spector of  elementary  schools.  Every  district  of  the  province,  (mandamento,)  or  several 
districts  together,  shall  have  a  district  superintendent,  (Proveditore  mandamentale.)  (5.) 
B.  Supreme  Council  of  Public  Instruction. 

12.  The  Supreme  Council  is  composed  of  fifteen  members,  ten  ordinary  and  five  extra- 
ordinary.    The  former  shall  be  appointed  by  the  King,  and  two  of  these,  at  least,  shall 
be  elected  from  amon"  persons  not  belonging  to  public  instruction.    The  last  shall  also 


70  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

be  appointed  by  the  King,  and  selected  from  five  lists  of  three  candidates,  which  shall 
be  presented  by  each  of  the  five  faculties  of  the  university  of  Turin.  The  ordinary 
members  only  shall  receive  a  salary.  (6.) 

13.  A  fifth  of  the  members  shall  be  renewed  every  year,  so  that  two  of  the  ordinaries 
and  one  of  the  extraordinaries  shall  leave  annually.     In  the  first  four  years  at'ter  the 
first  election,  it  shall  be  decided  by  lot  which  members  shall  vacate  the  office ;  after- 
ward, the  three  members  who  have  been  longest  in  the  office  shall  annually  leave  their 
place.     These  may  be  appointed  again. 

14.  The  vice-president  is  annually  elected  by  the  King  from  among  the  members ; 
for  the  validity  of  decisions  a  quorum  of  eight  members  is  required. 

15.  Whenever  the  minister  or  the  Council  shall  order  it,  the  counselor  and  the  gen- 
eral inspectors  shall  join  its  meetings,  but  shall  have  no  power  of  voting ;  the  presi- 
dents of  the  faculties  may  also  be  called  to  the  meetings,  and  they  shall  have  the  power 
of  voting  on  questions  relative  to  the  courses  and  programmes  of  their  own  faculty. 

16.  Both  the  minister  and  the  Council  have  power  to  call  to  the  meetings  whomever 
they  may  think  convenient  to  hear  in  any  particular  discussion.     These   persons, 
however,  shall  have  no  power  of  voting. 

17.  The  Council,  on  the  request  of  the  minister,  shall  compose  and  examine  the  bills, 
decrees  and  by-laws  concerning  instruction,  and  shall  give  its  opinion  on  every  other 
subject  relative  to  teaching  and  scholastic  administration. 

18.  It  shall  examine  and  propose  to  the  minister  for  his  approbation  text-books, 
treatises,  and  programmes. 

19.  It  shall  examine  the  applications,  and  their  merits  for  the  vacant  chairs  of  all  the 
universities  of  the  kingdom. 

20.  It  shall  give  its  opinion,  o,  on  doubts  as  to  the  right  interpretation  and  application 
of  laws  relative  to  public  instruction  ;  b,  on  contests  between  the  different  scholastic 
authorities  ;  c,  on  by-laws  relative  to  examinations,  the  establishment  of  new  colleges 
and  boarding  scholastic  establishments,  and  on  whatever  relates  to  general  scholas- 
tic administration,  and  to  distribution  of  the  subjects  among  the  different  chairs  and 
branches  of  instruction. 

21.  It  shall  give  its  opinion  on  neglects  and  offenses,  of  which  Directors  and  Pro- 
fessors of  secondary  and  normal  schools,  after  three  years  of  their  service,  may  be  ac- 
cused, whenever  such  offenses  may  deserve  a  degradation  or  suspension  for  more  than 
three  months.      The  defendants  have  always  right  to  be  heard,  either  orally  or  in 
writing,  as  they  may  choose.  (7.) 

22.  The  Council  has  always  power  to  propose  to  the  minister  those  provisions  which 
it  may  believe  useful  to  the  progress  of  instruction. 

23.  The  Council  shall  judge  those  Professors  of  the  universities,  and  Collegiate 
Doctors,  who  may  be  accused  of  neglect  or  offense,  whenever  this  offense  can  be  fol- 
lowed by  degradation  or  suspension ;  the  defendant  shall  always  be  heard,  as  above. 
A  special  act  shall  determine  neglects  and  offenses,  which  shall  be  followed  by  those 
punishments,  and  also  their  effects. 

24.  In  urgent  cases,  the  minister  shall  have  the  power  of  suspending,  by  his  own 
authority,  Professors  of  the  universities,  till  the  definite  judgment  shall  be  given  by  the 
Council. 

25.  The  Council  shall  judge,  in  causes  of  appeal,  relative  to  expulsion  or  temporary 
exclusion  from  the  courses,  inflicted  by  subordinate  authorities  on  students  of  the  uni- 
versities, and  of  secondary  and  normal  schools. 

26.  Every  five  years  the  Council  shall  present  to  the  minister  a  general  report  on  the 
condition  of  all  branches  of  instruction,  which  shall  be  published,  with  the  observa- 
tions and  propositions  of  the  Council.     In  view  of  this  object,  the  annual  reports  of 
the  Inspectors,  of  the  authorities  which  preside  over  the  universities,  of  the  Provincial 
Deputations,  of  the  Superintendents  and  Directors,  shall  be  communicated  to  the 
Council. 

C.     Counselor. 

27.  The  Counselor  receives  his  appointment  from  the  King. 

28.  He  shall  give  his  legal  advice  on  applications  made  by  students  for  exceptional 
admission  to  courses  and  examinations,  for  exemptions  from  examinations,  and  from 
the  payment  of  their  fees,  and  generally  on  all  questions  about  interpretation  and  appli- 
cation of  laws  and  rules. 

29.  Whenever  especially  charged  by  the  minister,  he  shall  report  to  the  Council  the 
neglects  and  offenses,  for  which  Professors  of  the  universities,  or  Collegiate  Doctors, 
may  be  suspended  or  degraded.     He  shall  join  the  meetings  of  the  Council,  whenever 
defendants  may  plead  before  it. 

30.  He  shall  be  heard  by  the  Council  in  the  causes  brought  before  it  by  students  con- 
demned to  expulsion  or  temporary  exclusion  from  schools. 

31.  He  shall  refer  to  the  minister  the  offenses  committed  against  the  laws  and  disci- 
pline of  the  universities. 

D.     General  Inspectors. 

32.  The  General  Inspectors  receive  their  appointment  from  the  King.  . 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  7] 

33.  They  shall  watch  over  the  proceedings  of  public  instruction,  each  in  connection 
with  the  branch  intrusted  to  him,  in  the  name  and  under  the  orders  of  the  minister. 
They  shall  give  to  the  Royal  Superintendents  such  directions,  as  they  may  believe  use- 
ful, according  to  law. 

34.  They  shall  propose  to  the  minister  the  committees  of  examination,  advancement 
and  appointments  of  teachers,  honors  to  be  bestowed  upon  them,  and  punishments  which 
they  may  deserve. 

35.  Whenever  especially  charged  by  the  minister,  they  shall  bring  before  the  Council 
the  accusations  against  directors  and  professors  of  secondary  and  normal  schools,  when 
they  are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  render  defendants  liable  to  degradation  or  suspension 
for  more  than  two  months. 

36.  Each  of  them,  personally  or  by  means  of  their  subordinate  inspectors,  shall  pro- 
vide for  the  department  in  charge  of  each  of  them,  and  to  the  inspection  of  all  schools 
and  institutions,  either  public  or  private. 

37.  The  General  Inspectors,  availing  themselves  of  the  annual  reports  of  their  sub- 
ordinate officers  shall  annually  report  on  the  conditions  of  the  branch  of  instruction 
placed  under  their  care.     They  also  shall  collect  materials  for  annual  statistical  tables 
of  instruction,  which  shall  be  published  within  the  first  six  months  following  the  year 
to  which  they  refer. 

E.     Provincial  Scholastic  Deputations. 

38.  The  Provincial  Scholastic  Deputation  consists  of  the  Royal  Civil  Superintend- 
ent of  the  Province,  who  presides  over  it ;  of  the  Royal  Scholastic  Superintendent, 
who  is  Vice-President ;  of  three  Deputies  from  the  Council  of  the  Provincial  Civil 
Administration,  elected  by  the  Council  itself,  either  from  among  its  members  or  from 
persons  of  scientific  and  literary  culture ;  a  Deputy  from  the  Municipal  Council  of  the 
city ;   the  Provincial  Inspector  of   Elementary  Schools ;   the  Director  of  Secondary 
Instruction  in  the  Provincial  College ;  the  Professor  of  Religion ;  and  a  Professor  of 
the  Normal  School,  (8,)  or  a  teacher  of  Elementary  Schools,  who  shall  be  annually  ap- 
pointed by  the  minister.     The  members  of  the  Deputation  shall  not  receive  any  salary. 

39.  The  Scholastic  Deputation  shall  meet  every  month,  on  the  day  determined  by  its 
President  or  Vice-President;  and  whenever  these  officers  shall  require. 

40.  It  shall  enforce  the  laws  and  rules  relative  to  the  secondary,  elementary  and 
normal  schools  of  the  Province. 

41.  It  shall  order  extraordinary  inspections  on  the  institutions  of  the  Province,  for 
which  it  shall  delegate  one  or  more  of  its  members,  whenever  occasion  shall  require. 
It  shall  decide  on  necessary  provisions  which  are  not  beyond  its  power,  and  it  shall  refer 
to  the  minister,  whenever  questions  arise  beyond  its  jurisdiction.     In  urgent  cases,  it 
shall  have  the  power  of  taking  necessary  measures,  even  of  ordering  the  closing  of 
institutions ;  but  it  shall  refer  immediately  to  the  minister. 

42.  It  shall  approve  the  appointments  of  elementary  teachers  made  by  Municipal 
Councils  of  the  Province.     It  shall  suggest  to  the  same  Councils  increase  of  salaries, 
the  opening  of  new  schools,  the  purchase  of  apparatus,  and  whatever  can  improve  the 
condition  of  schools  and  of  their  teachers.     It  shall  also  suggest  to  the  Provincial  Civil 
Superintendent  the  expenses  which  should  be  imposed  upon  the  Municipal  Corpora- 
tions, whenever  it  shall  deem  it  necessary. 

43.  It  shall  decide  disputes  between  municipal  authorities  and  teachers,  relative  to 
the  fulfillment  of  scholastic  duties. 

44.  It  shall  decide  on  admission  to  the  courses  and  examinations  of  secondary,  ele- 
mentary and  normal  schools,  should  any  doubt  arise  on  the  interpretation  of  by-laws. 

45.  Parties  alluded  to  in  the  preceding  two  paragraphs  shall  always  have  an  appeal  to 
the  minister. 

46.  The  Deputation  shall  institute  the  necessary  proceedings  upon  offenses  of  which 
elementary  teachers  may  be  accused ;  and,  after  having  heard  the  defendants,  it  shall 
refer  to  the  minister,  suggesting  suitable  action. 

47.  It  shall  decide  on  the  application  of  teachers  and  professors  for  furlough  ;  it  shall 
propose  to  the  minister  such  advancements,  pecuniary  allowances,  and  honors  which 
they  may  deserve. 

48.  It  shall  refer  to  the  minister  accusations  against  Provincial  Inspectors,  and  pro- 
fessors of  secondary  and  normal  schools,  whenever  they  may  be  liable  to  suspension 
or  degradation. 

49.  It  shall  examine  materials  for  statistics  of  private  and  public  instruction  in  the 
Province,  and  shall  annually  send  them,  with  its  comments,  to  the  minister. 

F.    JRoyal  Scholastic  Superintendents  of  Provinces. 

50.  These  are  appointed  by  the  King. 

51.  They  shall  have  supervision  of  the  official  conduct  of  those  who  preside  over  the 
instruction  or  direction  of  scholastic  establishments  in  their  provinces.     They  shall 
execute  the  orders  and  decisions  of  the  Provincial  Deputation.    They  shall  correspond 


72  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

directly  with  the  minister,  shall  watch  over  all  the  public  and  private  schools,  enforce 
the  laws  and  rules,  and  suggest,  both  to  the  Deputation  and  to  the  minister,  the  neces- 
sary provisions. 

52.  At  least  once  a  year,  they  shall  visit  all  the  secondary  schools  of  their  province, 
ana  shall  provide,  personally  or  by  some  members  of  the  Deputation,  that  all  other 
institutions  be  visited. 

53.  It  shall  be  their  duty  to  enforce  on  the  Provincial  Inspectors  of  elementary 
schools  their  obligations  relative  to  their  inspections,  and  shall  give  to  them  and  to  the 
local  superintendents  the  necessary  orders. 

54.  They  shall  grant  to  public  teachers,  regularly  appointed,  their  certificate  of 
license. 

55.  They  shall  watch  over  the  correct  disposition  of  legacies  bequeathed  to  scholastic 
institutions  of  the  Province;  and,  in  case  of  any  transgression,  they  shall  refer  to  the 
minister. 

G.     Local  Scholastic  Superintendents. 

56.  These  are  appointed  by  the  minister,  on  the  nomination  of  the  Royal  Scholastic 
Superintendent  of  the  Province.     They  receive  no  salary. 

57.  They  shall  watch  over  the  exact  enforcement  of  laws  and  rules  in  the  schools  of 
their  district.     They  shall  visit  them  at  least  once  a  year,  and  whenever  it  is  ordered 
by  the  Royal  Superintendent,  to  whom  they  shall  report.     They  shall  correspond  with 
the  Royal  Superintendent  of  the  Province,  and  execute  all  his  orders  and  directions. 
They  shall  aid  the  Provincial  Inspector  in  forming  statistical  tables  of  the  schools  and 
institutions  of  the  district. 

H.     Provincial  Inspectors  of  Elementary  Schools. 

58.  In  every  Province  there  shall  be  an  Inspector  of  Elementary  Schools.     He  shall 
be  appointed  by  the  minister,  who  may  appoint  only  one  for  two  provinces,  whenever 
it  shall  be  required  by  their  Provincial  Councils. 

59.  No  one  can  be  appointed  Inspector,  who  has  not  taught  at  least  five  years. 

60.  Provincial  Inspectors  shall  inspect  all  the  public  and  private  institutions  of  ele- 
mentary instruction.     Their  annual  visitation  shall  last  not  less  than  seven  months  in 
the  year. 

61.  They  shall,  besides,  attend  to  all  extraordinary  inspections  ordered  either  by  the 
minister,  by  the  Royal  Superintendent,  or  by  the  Provincial  Deputation. 

62.  They  shall  make  an  annual  report  of  their  inspections,  which,  through  the  Royal 
Superintendent,  shall  be  presented  to  the  Provincial  Deputation  for  its  observations, 
with  which  it  shall  be  sent  to  the  minister.     They  shall  also  present  a  report  of  all 
extraordinary  inspections  to  the  authority  by  whose  order  they  were  made. 

63.  They  shall  prepare  every  year  tables  on  the  conditions  of  all  the  elementary 
schools  of  the  Province,  whether  for  boys  or  girls,  and  of  all  the  Infant  Asylums,  which 
shall  be  presented  to  the  Provincial  Deputation. 

64.  The  Inspectors  may  be  allowed  to  fill  other  offices  relative  to  education.     But 
every  other  employ  or  profession  is  strictly  forbidden  to  them. 

CHAPTER  III. — Special  Provisions. 

65.  The  salaries  of  the  ordinary  members  of  the  Supreme  Council,  of  the  Counselor, 
of  the  two  General  Inspectors,  of  the  two  Inspectors  of  Secondary  Schools,  and  of  the 
Royal   Scholastic   Superintendents,   are   paid   by   the   State.      The   salaries   are   as 

fallowing  : 

Vice-President  of  the  Supreme  Council, 2500  francs. 

Each  of  the  ordinary  members  of  the  Council, 2000 

Counselor, 4000 

General  Inspector  of  Secondary  Schools, 4000 

General  Inspector  of  Elementary  nnd  Teachers'  Schools, 4000      " 

Each  of  the  two  Inspectors  of  Secondary  Schools, 2200 

Each  of  the  Royal  Scholastic  Superintendents, COO      " 

Rector  of  the  University  of  Turin 4000      " 

Vice-Rector, 1000      " 

Rector  of  the  University  of  Genoa, 3000 

Vice-Rector, 600      " 

Each  of  the  Rectors  of  the  two  Universities  of  the  Island  of  Sardinia, ..2000      " 
Each  of  the  two  Vice-Rectors, 300      " 

66.  The  salary,  including  the  travelling  expenses,  of  the  Provincial  Inspector  shall  be 
paid  by  each  Province.     It  shall  be  2400  francs. 

CHAPTER  IV. — Transitory  Dispositions. 

By  which  it  provides  a-temporary  administration,  till  the  new  organization  shall  be 
installed;  in  which  interval  the  greatest  part  of  the  old  administration  shall  continue  to 
preside  over  the  public  instruction  of  the  country. 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  73 

REMARKS  ON  THE  LAW  OF  1857. 

(1.)  According  to  the  existing  laws  of  Sardinia,  public  schools  are  those,  which 
are  established  or  supported  by  the  state,  by  the  provinces,  townships,  religious 
institutions  or  associations,  or  by  private  legacies  intrusted  to  public  adminis- 
trators. Those,  which  are  established  or  supported  by  private  individuals,  under 
a  license  granted  by  the  Government,  are  called  private  schools.  For  the  laws  re- 
specting private  schools,  see  ante  pages  14  and  15.  Though  the  Infant  Asylums 
might  be  in  some  respects  classified  under  the  head  of  private  schools,  yet  they 
are  more  properly  considered  as  public  institutions,  on  account  of  the  official 
intervention,  both  of  the  government  and  of  the  municipalities,  in  their  manage- 
ment and  control.  These  institutions  are  founded,  generally  speaking,  by  private 
subscriptions  and  controlled  by  a  central  board  of  eight  or  nine  members,  among 
whom  we  find  always  the  mayor,  the  judge,  and  the  pastor  of  the  town  or 
township.  The  immediate  direction  of  the  Asylums  is  however  intrusted  to  a 
permanent  committee  of  ladies,  some  of  whom  visit  the  school  every  day,  aiding 
the  teachers  in  their  duties,  directing  the  institution  according  to  its  object,  and 
promoting,  by  an  assiduous  care,  its  general  progress  and  welfare.  Thus  the 
Asylums  have  essentially  a  domestic  character,  founded  on  maternal  feeling, 
which  directs  the  movement  of  the  central  board.  This  maternal  character  at- 
tached to  the  Infant  Asylums  has  proved  the  most  effectual  characteristic  of  the 
direction,  to  which  these  institutions  are  intrusted. 

(2.)  This  clause  establishes  the  exclusive  authority  of  the  State  in  the  direc- 
tion of  public  instruction,  denying  any  right  or  authority  of  the  church  in  the 
control  or  management  of  the  scholastic  institutions  of  the  country.  Before 
1848,  the  church  had  the  control  of  all  the  public  instruction,  and  even  the 
academic,  degrees  were  bestowed  by  its  authority,  the  archbishops  being  always 
the  chancellors  of  the  universities  of  the  State.  Since  that  tune,  that  authority 
has  been  entirely  restored  to  the  state,  and  confirmed  by  this  clause  of  the  new 
biD. 

(3.)  For  the  understanding  of  the  provisions  enacted  in  clauses  7,  8,  and  9 
of  the  chapter  respecting  private  instruction,  we  submit  an  account  of  the 
question  on  "Freedom  of  Instruction,"  which  was  brought  before  the 
Parliament  at  the  opening  of  the  general  discussion  of  this  bill.  Ameri- 
can readers,  who  h've  in  a  country  where  the  widest  and  most  unbound- 
ed freedom  in  opening  all  kind  of  schools  is  an  undisputed  right  of  the 
people,  and  where  no  governmental  education  is  established  by  the  State, 
may  find  it  no  easy  matter  to  form  an  idea  of  the  system  enforced  for  centuries 
in  a  country,  where  the  government  is  not  only  the  teacher,  but  the  only  lawful 
teacher  of  the  people.  The  laws  enacted  in  Sardinia  on  this  subject  before  the 
Constitution  of  1848  were  of  the  most  stringent  character,  forbidding  any  indi- 
vidual, association  or  municipality  to  open  a  school  of  any  kind  whatever, 
except  by  special  license  from  the  government,  which,  if  it  granted  such  license, 
prescribed  with  it  the  rules  on  which  private  establishments  should  be  directed, 
and  managed,  and  reserved  to  itself  an  absolute  right  of  inspecting  and  examin- 
ing licensed  institutions,  and  closing  them  at  pleasure.  It  is  evident  that,  in 
this  condition,  private  education  could  not  prosper,  and  the  entire  people  was 
obliged  to  depend  on  the  State  for  its  educational  and  scientific  training. 

The  constitution  granted  by  Charles  Albert,  while  it  insured  to  the  country 
free  institutions,  freedom  of  the  press  and  of  association,  did  not  recall  formally 
the  previous  legislation  relating  to  this  subject;  on  the  contrary,  the  former 
6 


Y4  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

provisions  were  confirmed  by  a  law  of  1848,  enacted  soon  after  the  granting  of  the 
constitution.  But  the  question  soon  arose.  whctluT  tins  state  of  things  was  hi 
accordance  with  free  government ;  whether  citizens  had  not  acquired  from  the 
very  nature  of  the  constitution  itself  full  power  of  establishing  schools  as  they 
might  desire,  and  parents  an  absolute  right  of  educating  their  children  as  they  might 
choose,  independently  of  any  interference  of  the  government,  without  losing  the 
privileges  or  rather  the  rights  attached  to  official  instruction.  There  was  no 
question,  whether  a  free  instruction,  supported  on  their  own  responsibility  by 
individuals  or  associations,  should  take  the  place  of  the  existing  system,  neither 
of  abolishing  any  of  the  official  schools,  or  preventing  the  government  from  es- 
tablishing new  ones,  under  their  own  direction  and  control.  It  was  only  the 
question  of  planting  side  by  side  the  two  systems,  so  as  to  recognize  the  right 
of  every  citizen  to  teach,  independently  of  the  government,  and  to  erect  schools 
and  educational  establishments  on  then1  own  responsibility ;  to  extend  the  privi- 
leges bestowed  on  the  students  of  the  official  establishments  to  the  pupils  of 
private  schools.  Thus  presented,  the  question  had  in  itself  its  solution.  Free 
instruction,  as  well  as  a  free  press  and  free  association,  is  a  logical  consequence 
of  a  free  government,  and  indeed  the  principle  itself  was  not  met  by  any  oppo- 
sition in  Sardinia. 

Yet  particular  conditions  of  the  country  suggested  a  prudent  course  in 
this  matter,  and  did  not  allow  an  immediate  acknowledgment  of  so  uni- 
versal and  absolute  a  right  of  teaching.  It  is  known,  that  Sardinia,  until 
1 848,  was  under  the  sway  of  an  absolute  monarchical  government,  controlled  and 
directed  by  the  Catholic  clergy,  which  was  its  mam  supporter  and  adviser. 
Education  especially,  though  supported  by  the  state,  was  entirely  managed  by 
the  Catholic  party,  which  availed  themselves  of  ah1  means  in  their  hands  hi  order 
to  strengthen  their  own  position,  and  extend  their  dominion  over  the*whole  of 
public  and  private  life.  But,  as  soon  as  a  new  era  of  freedom  appeared  in  Sar- 
dinia, it  was  natural  that  its  government  should  cut  short  the  former  encroach- 
ments of  the  clergy,  abolish  their  privileges  and  usurpations,  and  free  itself 
forever  from  their  influence.  Hence  the  opposition  of  the  ecclesiastical  body  to 
the  political  institutions  of  the  state ;  hence  the  danger  of  allowing  this  party 
to  open  schools,  and  to  constitute  themselves  the  teachers  of  the  country.  In 
America,  where  no  state  religion  is  to  be  found,  where  no  religious  denomination 
can  exert  any  great  influence  on  political  subjects,  where  freedom  has  no  ene- 
mies, where  absolute  separation  of  church  and  state  is  a  fundamental  principle 
of  the  constitution  of  the  states,  no  danger  can  arise  from  this  boundless  freedom 
of  teaching.  It  is  not  so  with  the  old  countries,  and  it  is  not  so  with  Sardinia. 
There,  the  Catholic  church  is  the  church  of  the  state ;  there,  the  clergy  is  a 
powerful  association,  not  counterbalanced  by  any  other,  with  branches  scattered 
all  over  the  country,  with  representatives  in  every  township  and  village,  all 
acting  in  one  spirit,  directed  by  one  mind,  and  exerting  a  strong  influence  on 
the  great  mass  of  people.  The  church,  moreover,  possesses  large  means  of  action. — 
about  fifteen  millions  of  francs  a  year, — of  which  a  great  part  could  be  used  in 
supporting  schools  all  over  the  country,  in  accordance  with  its  objects.  Now, 
whether  it  is  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  religious  principles  of  that  sect,  or 
a  mistake  of  its  clergy,  we  will  not  decide,  but  it  is  a  fact  that  the  clergy  in 
Sardinia  have  ever  shown  a  deep  and  open  hatred  of  civil  reforms  and  of  all 
aspirations  of  nationality,  to  the  cause  of  which  so  many  noble  hearts  in  the 
country  are  devoted.  Add  to  this,  that  the  clergy  openly  acknowledge  their 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA.  175 

unfailing  duty  to  abide  by  the  Pope,  an  open  enemy  himself  of  free  institutions 
in  Italy,  and  a  friend  of  the  oppressors  of  his  nation.  The  danger  is  evident, 
that  the  State  would  encounter,  should  it  recognize  in  this  party  an  unmodified 
right  of  teaching,  and  of  opening  educational  establishments ;  the  exercise  of 
this  right  would  not  foil  to  act  powerfully  against  the  free  institutions,  and  the 
dearest  aspirations  of  the  country.  This,  we  believe,  is  the  only  danger  which 
would  arise  from  a  system  of  boundless  freedom  of  instruction,  and  the  strongest 
reason  for  delaying  a  reform,  which  otherwise  all  parties  would  unite  to  enact. 

The  Parliament,  in  closing  the  general  discussion  of  the  bill,  passed  a  resolu- 
tion, by  which  the  Minister,  in  presenting  to  the  House  bills  organi/in, 
three  branches  of  education,  will  be  obliged  to  endorse  in  some  way  the  princi- 
ple of  freedom.  We  believe,  however,  that  should  this  principle  be  enforced  in 
future  provisions,  it  will  be  surrounded  with  so  many  restrictions  as  to  destroy 
it  in  its  substance.  The  fact  is,  that  while  the  government  does  not  enact  the 
principle  of  an  absolute  separation  of  the  state  from  the  church,  while  it  does 
not  carry  it  through  all  its  legislation  and  administration,  no  freedom  of  instruc- 
tion is  possible,  for  the  only  reason  that  it  will  be  monopolized  by  the  clergy. 

But,  let  the  government  disclaim  any  connection  with  the  church,  let  it  con- 
sider this  as  a  private  association  subject  to  the  laws  of  the  state,  let  it  open 
the  gates  of  the  kingdom  to  all  religious  denominations,  and  put  these  on  an 
equality  with  the  Catholic  clergy,  let  it  discontinue  all  acts  which  should  include 
an  acknowledgment  of  any  civil  power  in  the  church,  let  it  render  stronger, 
more  extensive  and  more  liberal  the  official  system,  then,  and  not  till  then, 
"  free  instruction  "  will  mean  a  practicable  and  useful  reform.  Before  that  time. 
we  firmly  believe,  that  any  provision  on  this  subject  will  either  be  so  restricted 
as  not  to  deserve  the  name  of  reform,  or  so  wide  as  to  be  monopolized  by  a 
party,  which  openly  professes  to  depend  on  a  foreign  sovereign,  which  claims 
for  itself  the  exclusive  possession  of  truth,  so  as  to  deny  to  any  other  denomina- 
tions the  right  of  teaching  and  public  worship,  which  considers  the  State  as  a 
subject  of  the  Church,  and  without  any  power  of  reforming  those  parts  of  legis- 
lation, which  the  Church  defines  to  be  beyond  the  power  of  the  State  itself. 

Ardently  devoted  to  freedom,  we  wish  to  our  beloved  country  an  entire  system 
of  civil  reforms,  which,  if  united,  will  be  of  mutual  aid  and  support ;  but  separated, 
will  be  of  short  duration,  and  of  little  advantage,  if  not  of  danger,  to  the  country. 
"We  wish  an  entire  freedom  of  the  church,  as  well  as  of  other  religious  and  dvil 
associations ;  we  wish  the  great  bodies,  together  with  their  doctrines,  wliich  may 
enter  into  the  educational  contest,  placed  on  an  equal  footing,  and,  above  all,  we 
wish  to  establish  the  absolute  supremacy  of  the  civil  power  over  all  the  associations 
existing  in  the  state ;  and  when  these  rights  shall  have  been  conquered,  when 
the  State  shall  have  acquired  such  an  independence  as  to  not  be  prevented  from 
carrying  its  reforms  by  the  opposition  of  a  foreign  party,  cheerfully  we  will 
join  those  of  our  friends,  who  are  engaged  in  promoting  in  Sardinia  freedom  of 
instruction,  and  tender  to  them,  if  not  the  feeble  support  of  our  words,  at  least 
the  best  wishes  of  our  heart. 

(4.)  Religious  instruction  is  the  necessary  complement  of  a  thorough  system 
of  education.  As  to  this  necessity  no  doubt  has  been  manifested  by  any  party 
of  the  Parliament,  in  all  the  discussion  to  which  this  clause  has  given  occasion. 
The  liberal  party,  however,  opposed  strongly  this  provision,  not  because  they 
denied  in  any  way  the  necessity  of  such  an  instruction,  but  because  they  con- 
sidered it  to  be  contrary  both  to  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  state.  Can  a  state, 


tjQ  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

like  Sardinia,  which  acknowledges  the  catholic  religion  as  its  own,  preside  over 
the  religious  training  of  its  people  ?  Does  not  the  catholic  church  claim  for  her- 
self, as  a  fundamental  tenet  of  her  doctrine,  the  desire  and  exclusive  right  of 
teaching  religion  ?  Moreover,  can  a  state,  like  Sardinia,  in  which  all  citizens, 
of  whatever  denomination,  enjoy  equal  rights,  provide  a  portion  of  its  population 
with  a  free  religious  instruction,  leaving  the  other  portion  without  any,  or  to 
provide  it  from  its  own  resources?  The  fundamental  principle  of  political 
economy  which  prevails  in  the  United  States,  and  which  has  proved  so  benefi- 
cial to  this  country,  the  absolute  separation  of  tfie  state  from  the  church,  alone 
affords  a  satisfactory  solution  of  this  problem.  There  is  no  country,  in  which 
religious  instruction  is  more  extensive  and  more  efficient,  than  in  the  United 
States,  though  such  instruction  is  not  given  hi  the  schools  supported  by  the 
community  at  large.  The  absolute  freedom  of  conscience  and  teaching,  which 
this  country  enjoys,  has  proved  not  only  a  source  of  social  progress  and  of  pub- 
lic welfare,  but  also  the  only  true  means  of  assuring  to  the  people  a  sound  and 
efficient  religious  training.  The  institution  of  Sunday  Schools,  supported  so  lib- 
erally both  by  the  different  protestant  denominations  and  the  catholics,  has  far 
more  promoted  the  religious  education  of  this  country,  than  it  could  be  by  any 
interference  of  the  state.  Indeed,  after  the  trial  given  to  this  system  in  this 
country,  the  freedom  of  worship  and  proselytism  secured  to  all  denominations, 
should  meet  the  favor  not  only  of  those  in  Sardinia  who  contend  for  the  triumph 
of  human  rights,  but  also  of  all,  who  feel  an  interest  in  the  cause  of  religion. 
Let  the  different  forms  of  religious  feeling  have  their  full  development  in  the 
country,  let  all  sects  meet  together  hi  a  noble  rivalry  for  the  propagation  of  their 
doctrines ;  religious  instruction  will  thus  flow  from  its  natural  source,  and  soon 
produce  that  public  sentiment,  which  is  so  admirable  in  the  United  States. 
By  the  sanction  of  this  system  only  will  the  state  be  able  to  free  itself  from  the 
embarrassments  and  difficulties,  to  which  it  is  too  often  exposed  by  its  unnatural 
union  with  the  ecclesiastical  body.  Sardinia  will  also  thus  take  the  lead  of 
moral  and  civil  reform  hi  Italy,  on  which,  we  sincerely  believe,  the  great  cause 
of  Italian  nationality  depends. 

(5.)  For  the  understanding  of  this  organization  of  the  scholastic  authorities 
of  Sardinia,  we  submit  a  few  remarks  on  the  political  administration  of  the 
country.  The  kingdom  of  Sardinia^  which  extends  over  more  than  seventy -five 
thousand  square  kilometres,  embraces  under  its  civil  and  political  government, 
that  group  of  different  provinces  and  territories,  which  were  either  confirmed  or 
assigned  to  it  by  the  treaty  of  Yienna  in  1815.  The  kingdom  is  divided  into 
fourteen  departments,  (Divisioni.)  each  of  which  is  subdivided  into  different 
provinces,  which  again  are  divided  into  many  districts,  which  are  called  manda- 
.  each  of  these  containing  a  determined  number  of  townships,  (comuni.) 
The  provinces  are  fifty  in  number,  eleven  of  which  belong  to  the  Island  of  Sar- 
dinia. A  royal  civil  superintendent,  (Iniendente,)  presides  over  the  administra- 
tion of  each  province,  as  the  representative  of  the  central  government,  while 
the  interests  of  its  population  are  represented  by  a  provincial  council  elected  by 
the  people  at  large.  The  affairs  of  the  cities  and  townships  are  administered  by 
a  municipal  council  elected  by  the  people,  and  presided  over  by  a  syndic. 
Since  1848  the  form  of  government  is  of  a  constitutional  monarchy,  in  many 
respects  similar  to  the  government  of  England.  The  legislative  power  is 
exerted  by  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Deputies,  the  former  consisting  of  members 
elected  for  life  by  the  King,  and  chosen  from  determined  classes  of  high 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 


77 


functionaries  in  the  church,  in  the  army,  in  the  scientific  establishments,  in  diplo- 
macy, in  the  judiciary,  or  in  the  civil  administration.  The  House  of  Deputies 
is  composed  of  two  hundred  and  four  members,  elected  by  the  people,  divided 
into  as  many  electoral  districts.  But  to  enjoy  the  right  of  electing  the  members 
of  the  House,  it  is  necessary  to  have  reached  the  age  of  twenty  -five  years,  to 
know  how  to  read  and  write,  and  to  be  a  tax-payer  in  a  sum  varying  in  differ- 
ent provinces  from  twenty  to  forty  francs.  Professions,  however,  which  suppose 
some  degree  of  intellectual  culture,  are  exempted  from  this  last  condition,  they 
being  admitted  to  the  right  of  suffrage  without  the  necessity  of  paying  any  tax 
whatever.  Every  citizen,  of  the  age  of  thirty  years,  can  be  elected  member  of 
the  House,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  classes  of  functionaries.  Bills  approved 
by  both  the  Houses  require  the  sanction  of  the  King,  which  can  be  granted  or 
refused.  The  executive  power  is  intrusted  to  seven  ministers  appointed  by  the 
King  in  the  different  departments  of  the  administration.  Equality  of  rights 
before  the  law  in  all  citizens,  personal  freedom,  freedom  of  the  press  and  of  as- 
sociation, inviolability  of  the  residence  and  of  property,  independence  of  the  judici- 
ary power  from  the  executive,  are  among  the  important  benefits  secured  to  the 
people  by  the  constitution. 

"Whoever  has  followed  the  course  of  European  events  for  the  last  nine  years, 
can  judge  if  the  new  political  organization  of  Sardinia  has  proved  a  successful 
trial  of  free  institutions.  Among  difficulties  and  dangers  of  every  kind,  between 
the  menaces  of  its  real  enemies  and  the  more  dangerous  influence  of  its  pre- 
tended friends,  under  the  sway  of  an  honest  King,  the  only  King  in  Italy  who 
knew  how  to  keep  his  word  to  his  people,  and  with  a  population  of  a  sound 
and  practical  sense,  that  little  country,  from  a  comparatively  insignificant  condi- 
tion, rose  in  a  short  time  to  a  state  of  no  small  political  importance,  and  of  a 
great  moral  power  among  the  other  parts  of  the  Peninsula.  Sardinia,  avoiding 
both  anarchy  and  despotism,  has  showed  to  the  despotic  governments  of  Europe, 
that  political  freedom  of  a  country  is  yet  the  best  condition  of  its  social  order 
and  of  its  general  welfare.  Setting  a  noble  example  of  a  free  and  strong  gov- 
ernment, it  became  the  moral  centre  of  all  the  states  of  Italy,  which,  in  their 
general  wreck,  regard  that  portion  of  the  country  as  the  beacon  of  their  safety. 
Freeing  itself  from  the  influence  of  Austria,  at  the  head  of  the  national  party, 
and  struggling  for  the  national  independence  of  all  Italy,  Sardinia  is  recognized 
by  the  great  bulk  of  the  Italian  people  as  the  true  representative  and  the  faith- 
ful exponent  of  that  noble  cause.  The  new  and  elevated  position  which  that 
country  has  acquired  among  the  nations  of  Europe,  the  important  reforms 
which  found  their  way  in  Sardinia  through  the  new  constitution,  free  trade  and 
its  extraordinary  results,  the  wonderful  development  of  its  financial  and  com- 
mercial resources,  the  extension  of  its  railways  and  telegraphs,  and,  above  all, 
the  progressive  increase  of  its  popular  education,  are  among  the  benefits  which 
Sardinia  has  derived  from  its  free  institutions.  "We  refer  to  the  following  statis- 
tics, which  speak  conclusively  in  favor  of  the  new  political  organization  of 
Sardinia,  considered  in  connection  with  public  education,  showing  its  progress 
through  the  last  four  years,  compared  with  the  year  1850  : 

1850.  1853.  1854.  1855.  1835. 

Schools  for  boys,  4,336  5.138  5197 


,    , 

Average  of  girls,  etc.,                                      40,278         84388  91,651  100,564  109,356 

Townships  without  any  schools  for  boys,      ^433           ^397  ^  ^  ^^ 

2.836,717  «*»  3,339,578  3,557,212 


V8  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  SARDINIA. 

(6.)  The  Supreme  Council  is  so  organized  by  this  act  as  to  consist  both  of 
members  appointed  by  the  government,  and  of  others  elected  by  the  faculties 
of  the  University  of  Turin.  It  must  be  considered  that  such  a  council  from  its 
very  nature  could  not  properly  be  the  result  of  the  popular  vote,  which  would 
place  it  under  the  influence  and  movements  of  political  parties.  Neither  educa- 
tion nor  science  can  be  properly  directed  by  a  Board,  which  floats  on  the  uncer- 
tain and  stormy  waves  of  politics.  The  results  in  some  of  the  United  .States 
amply  confirm  the  necessity  of  applying  to  some  other  source  than  popular 
election  for  the  constitution  of  Boards  of  Education.  This  necessity  appears 
more  evident,  if,  to  this  Board,  not  only  popular  education  but  the  direction  of 
all  the  branches  of  scientific  teaching  should  be  intrusted.  We  believe,  how- 
ever, that  the  system  adopted  by  the  Sardinian  Parliament  could  be  improved 
by  extending  the  privilege  of  election  granted  to  the  faculties  of  Turin  to  all  the 
teachers  of  the  State.  No  better  source  could  be  assigned  to  the  Supreme 
Council,  than  to  place  its  constitution  in  the  hands  of  the  teachers  at  large,  so  as 
to  divide  them  into  three  different  electoral  colleges,  according  to  the  three  dif- 
ferent departments  of  instruction.  Should  "  free  teaching  "  become  a  right  of 
the  country,  the  teachers  belonging  to  this  class  of  instruction  should  also  have 
right  to  elect  their  own  representatives  in  the  Supreme  Council.  In  this  system 
the  action  of  the  Government  should  confine  itself  to  choose  the  members  of  the 
Board  from  the  lists  so  proposed  by  the  electors.  It  would  seem  that  this  system 
better  than  any  other  else  would  secure  to  the  Council  the  elements  of  stability 
and  progress,  together  with  the  ability  and  the  independence  of  the  members 
from  the  executive  and  political  influence,  without  which  an  efficient  direction 
of  public  education  can  not  be  conceived. 

(7.)  By  this  clause  the  legislation  of  1848  is  changed,  according  to  which 
Directors  and  Professors  of  secondary  and  normal  schools,  after  three  years  of 
public  service  could  not  be  removed  from  their  chairs,  without  a  previous  formal 
judgment  of  the  Supreme  Council.  It  appears  that  henceforth  these  functiona- 
ries will  be  at  the  mercy  of  the  executive,  the  minister  not  being  bound  to  follow 
the  opinion  of  the  Council  in  respect  to  their  offenses  and  neglects.  It  is  just, 
however,  to  add  that  the  dangers  which  could  result  from  this  arbitrary  power 
granted  to  the  minister  of  public  instruction  would  be  checked  by  the  weight 
of  public  opinion,  which  in  fact  has  the  supreme  sway  in  a  free  country.  Yet, 
we  confess  that  the  present  provision  will  not  prove  the  most  apt  to  bestow  dig- 
nity, or  improve,  in  any  way,  the  condition  either  of  these  teachers  or  of  the 
secondary  and  normal  schools. 

(8.)  The  normal  schools  are  also  called  Teachers'  Schools,  (Scuole  Magistral!,) 
and  they  correspond,  in  some  respects,  to  the  Teachers'  Institutes  of  America. 
They  were  established  with  the  special  object  of  improving  the  teachers  of  ele- 
mentary schools,  who  had  previously  obtained  the  certificate  of  qualification. 
Afterward,  it  was  ordered  that  no  candidate  should  receive  this  certificate, 
who  had  not  frequented  the  normal  schools,  and  passed  a  successful  examination 
on  the  matters  of  their  course.  For  the  organization  of  these  schools  see  ante 
page  13.  Though  the  Teachers'  Schools  of  Sardinia  have  not  as  yet  reached 
that  degree  of  perfection  which  might  be  desired,  yet,  even  in  their  imperfect 
state,  they  must  be  considered  of  great  value  for  the  progress  of  the  popular 
education  of  the  country.  Public  opinion  is  greatly  in  favor  of  promoting  the 
extension  of  these  schools,  and  of  rendering  them  more  and  more  efficient  by 
raising  them  to  the  highest  possible  standard. 


BARNARD'S  AMERICAN  JOURNAL  OF  EDUCATION. 

One  has  only  to  glance  at  the  contents  of  this  number,  for  March,  [1856,1  of  the  AMERICAN  JOURNAL,  to 
see  how  boundless  and  inexhaustible  is  the  range  of  subjects  brought  within  review.  ,  i  edu- 

cation, as  it  has  been  conducted  in  ancient  and  modern  times  ;  the  different  methods  [iiirsiitd  in 'different 
countries  of  the  civilized  world,  with  their  comparative  results;  the  vast  range  of  .-  uted. 

ever  widening  with  the  expansion  of  science  and  art;  the  various  schools  of  philosophy,  xvhich 
obtained  with  the  tendencies  of  each ;  the  reduction  to  practical  use  of  the  most  abstract  and  general 
principles  in  philosophy  and  science  ;  the  various  popular  institutions  in  which  by  lectu  •-,  <fec., 

to  diffuse  knowledge  among  the  masses ;  all  these  and  other  suggestive  topics,  may  caMly  fill  successive-- 
numbers  of  an  educational  journal  in  the  hands  of  one  so  competent  as  DR.  BARNARD,  aided  by  so  large 
and  efficient  a  corps  of  contributors  as  that  announced  upon  the  cover  of  this  periodical.— The  Southern 
Quarterly  Review,  (New  Series,)  April,  1856. 

This  number.  [March  5,]  more  than  comes  up  to  the  expectation  of  its  warmest  friends,  and  is  alone  well 
worth  the  year's  subscription. — National  Intelligencer  for  April  4, 1350. 

The  May  number  is  before  us.    It  is  an  invaluable  work. —  The  Connecticut  Common  School  Journal. 

BARNARD'S  JOURNAL  OF  EDUCATION  for  May  is  a  splendid  thing.  We  had  prepared  a  full  notice  of 
this  wonderfully-comprehensive  publication  some  months  since  but  it  was  crowded  out  and  mislaid.— 
Illinois  Teacher  for  June. 

No  intelligent,  inquiring,  progressive  teacher,  or  guardian  of  our  educational  interests,  can  afford  to  do 
without  it.- — Lowell,  (Mass.,)  Journal  and  Courier. 

To  term  it  valuable  is  top  slight  praise.  It  is  an  invaluable  contribution  to  the  current  literature  of  the 
country.  It  is  devoted  entirely  to  educational  interests,  which  are  certainly  of  sufficient  magnitude  to 
demand  the  thorough,  able  and  systematic  presentation  of  their  claims,  which  they  will  here  receive. — 
Portsmouth,  (New  Hampshire,)  Gazette. 

Teachers,  superintendents,  school  committees,  professors  and  trustees  of  colleges,  and  all  who  are 
interested  in  the  great  subject  of  education,  will  find  this  periodical  well  worthy  of  their  attention,  if  not 
absolutely  indispensable.  No  one,  perhaps,  combines  so  happily  the  various  qualifications  requisite  for 
success  in-such  an  enterprise  as  DR.  BARNARD,  and  there  is  no  one  whose  antecedents  would  be  more 
likely  to  command  confidence. — Mobile,  (Alabama,)  Advertiser. 

This  publication  sustains  a  similar  relation  to  educational  newspapers  that  the  North  American  Review 
does  to  the  monthly  magazines. — Bangor,  (Maine,)  Democrat,  June. 

The  American  Journal  of  Education  does  not  belie  the  editorial  name  which  it  bears.  Emphatically 
a  Journal  of  Education,  it  is  the  best  that  we  have  ever  seen.  The  finest  minds  in  the  various  depart- 
ments of  educational  effort  are  contributing  to  its  pages.  The  statistics  given  through  tiie  year  will,  of 
themselves,  be  fully  worth  the  subscription. — Hartford,  (Conn.,)  Evening  Press. 

Here  is  a  periodical  destined  to  exert  a  wide  and  prominent  influence  on  the  character  of  our  country. 
Here  are  brought  together  facts  collected  from  various  sources,  which  can  not  fail  to  interest  and  instruct 
the  educator  and  the  philanthropist. — Daily  Star,  New  London^  Conn. 

We  regard  it  as  the  finest  publication  on  the  subject  of  education  that  we  have  ever  seen. — Daily 
Farmer,  Boston,  Penn. 

This  journal,  though  yet  in  the  first  year  of  its  existence,  has  already  attained  a  high  position  in  our 
periodical  literature.  It  fills  a  place  before  unoccupied.  The  article  on  Reformatory  Education  contains 
facts  and  statistics  that  can  be  found  in  no  other  publication  in  the  United  States.—  ?'//';  Independent. 

The  editor,  who  has  filled  the  office  of  Superintendent  of  Education  in  Rhode  Island  and  in  Connecticut, 
and  has  published  the  best  books  extant  upon  " School  Architecture"  and  "National  Education  in 
Europe,"  is  known  as  an  eminently  energetic  and  practical  man,  and  one  who  has  devoted  the  prime  of 
life  to  educational  improvement.  It  is  a  repertory  of  educational  intelligence  and  statistics;  prepared, 
arranged,  and  condensed  with  consummate  ability  and  discrimination.— franklin  County, (  Vt..)  Journal. 

This  is  the  great  educational  publication  of  this  country.  In  it  we  have  contributions  from  the  best 
educational  writers  of  the  land,  and  the  results  of  the  experience  of  the  best  educators  of  the  world.  We 
can  only  say  that  it  is  all  and  more  than  it  professes  to  be. — Wisconsin  Journal  of  Education. 

This  is  the  most  thorough  and  complete  educational  periodical  in  the  country. — R.  I.  Schoolmaster. 

The  first  bound  volume  of  Mr.  Barnard's  great  and  useful  work,  amply  fulfills  all  the  expectation  raised 
by  its  numbers  as  they  came  out.  It  is  a  book  for  the  Teacher's  Library,  and  gives  him  those  higher 
views  of  his  profession  and  its  relations,  which  he  will  in  vain  seek  elsewhere. —Penn.  School  Journal. 

The  Journal  of  Education  is  a  large  work,  each  number  containing  200  pages,  and  from  the  resources 
at  the  command  of  the  editor,  his  devotion  to  a  cause  which  he  has  served  with  eminent  success,  his 
energy  and  ability,  promises  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  educational  works  in  the  world.—  North 
Carolina  Common  School  Journal. 

We  are  most  happy  to  receive  this  valuable  journal,  which,  in  our  estimation,  stands  first  among 
educational  periodicals. — Indiana  School  Journal  for  September,  1856. 

This  Number,  (No.  10,)  constitutes  a  volume  of  272  pages  of  very  interesting  and  valuable  educational 
matter.     *    *    *    It  is,  without  doubt,  the  foremost  educational  periodical  in  our  language.    Theei 
ened  zeal  extraordinary  ability  and  self-sacrificing  devotion  to  the  great  cause  of  education,  as  e; 
in  this  work,  are  worthy  of  the  highest  commendation. — Boston  Journal. 

This  most  valuable  publication  we  can  recommend  to  all  our  readers  as  being  one  of  the  most  useful, 
able  and  interesting  serials  connected  with  Education  and  Reformation  yet  placed  before  us 
are  given  of  all  the  important  events  connected  with  these  subjects  occurring  in  the  United  States  and  in 
Europe. — Irish  Quarterly  Review  for  July,  1857. 


writers  and  teachers.    The  result  of  his  labors  has  been  the  publication  of  four  large  volumes,  embody- 
ng  not  only  much  practical  information,  but  many  profound  discussions  on  the  philosophy 
.Such  a  work  can  never  be  pecuniarily  profitable  to  the  editor,  and  the  friends  of  wcia^progres- 
lightened  views  of  education  should  therefore  feel  personally  caUed  upon  to  sus 
a  review  of  so  much  value  to  every  portion  of  our  country. — New  Englander. 


nby  their  su 


BARNARD'S  AMERICAN  JOURNAL  OF  EDUCATION, 

THE  AMERICAN  JOURNAL  OF  EDUCATION,  for  1858,  under  the  editorial  charge  of  Henry 
Barnard,  LL.  D.,  will  be  published  by  the  undersigned,  quarterly,^.,  on  the  15th  of  March,  June, 
September  and  December. 

EACH  NUMBER  will  contain  at  least  200  pages,  and  will  be  embellished  with  at  least  on". 
portrait,  and  with  wood  cuts  illustrative  of  recent  improvements  in  buildings,  apparatus  and 
furniture,  designed  for  educational  purposes. 

TERMS. — FOR  A  SINGLE  COPY,  one  year,  (1858,)  01  for  Numbers  12,  13,  14  and  15,  $3.00 

FOR  A  SINGLE    NUMBER, 1-00 

KTVl/Z  subscriptions  payable  in  advance. 

Exchange  Papers  and  Catalogues  should  be  directed  to  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion, Hartford,  Conn. 

All  communications  iatended  for,  or  relating  to,  the  contents  of  the  Journal,  should  be  directed 
to  the  editor.  All  business  letters  to  the  undersigned. 

Volumes  I.,  II.,  III.  and  IV.,  can  be  had  for  82.00  per  volume,  in  numbers,  or  for  S^.-'o.  bound 
in  cloth. 

A  circular,  containing  the  Contents  and  Index  of  Volumes  1.,  II.,  III.  and  IV.,  will  be  sent  by  mail 
to  any  one  nv.king  request  for  the  same. 

POSTAGE.— To  every  subscriber,  who  will  forward,  ($3.25,)  three  dollars  and  twenty-five  cents, 
the  Journal  for  1858  will  be  sent,  FREE  OF  POSTAGE. 

F.  C.  BROWNELL,  HARTFORD,  > 

NOTICES. 

THE  AMERICAN  JOURNAL  OP  EDUCATION,  as  edited  by  Hon.  Henry  Barnard,  is  _  established 


BARNARD'S  AMERICAN  JOURNAL  OF  EDUCATION  for  March,  (1S5G,)  presents  a  gi  i  import- 

ant articles  in:  merely  to  professional  instructors,  but  to  a!' who  take  pleasure! 

great,  questions  of  social  advancement  and  prosperity.     The  Editor';:  name  is  too  well  known,  tl 
[l,js  Etii|,  '.out  the  couir  .  publications  and  incessant  labors  for  tin 

ment  of  public  education,  to  warrant'nny  words  of  comment  as  10  i 

meiit  of  '  ncalas  that    which  he   is   publishing,     lie     understands   thoroughly  the 

instruction  throughout  the  country,  well  informed  in  reierence  to  co,. 

common 

tion"  in  '   comprehend;  and.  nion-uvir,  by  an  extensive  pel 

only  in  this  land,  but  in  almost  every  country  of  Europ;-,  he  is  able  to  collect  the  opinion. 

nshed  e'ducators.—  New  I  la?  en.  (Conn.. 

MR  BARNARD'S  JOURNAL  occupies  a  broader  field  than  the  local  school  journals.    I: 
comprehensive  ilian  any  tiling  tluu  has  h'thn-to  been  al 

tion  in  p'  (for  March)  a  mode!  what  a  first  i 

periodic: 

.bout  (lie  work  is  executed  with  t!u-  greatest  fU-.-'ily  —  Vermont  C- 

•. N  JOURNAL  OF  EDUCATION  is  distinguished  for  unusual  ability,  not  only  in  th- 

by  the  skillfulnessof  the  ( .  own  product 

,ule  table  of  contents.—  Wesleyan,  Sijracn ;«,  A".   V. 

We,  in  the  South,  have  long  wanted  such  a  periodical  as  this.— Memphis,  (Tenn  ,)  Daily  News. 
The  first  number  of  THE  AMERICAN  JOURNAL  OF  EDUCATION  we  received  with  unm 
save  in  t  t  England  has  as  yet  nothing   in  the   same  field  worthy  of  comp 

'nster  Revietpjor  Januari 
Seldom  have  we  welcomed  with  more  cordial  pleasure  a  new  publication.     A; 

nits  of  the  age  in  this  regard,  the  Editor  alwuj . 

'  in  the  promotion  of  the  great  object  in  which  he  has  labored  so  faithful!; 
—Knickerbocker. 

This  is  a  work  which  rici.Iy  deserves  a  world-wide  circulation.— The  English  Journal  r/  £ 
It  is  the  most  comprehensive  and  instructive  specimen  of  a  periodical  on  the  subject  winch  we  hav< 

tlern  Watchman. 

BARNARD'S  JOURNAL  OF  EDUCATION,  it  may  be  very  justly  said,  marks  an  era  in  thi?  kind  ol 
to   this,  we  have  not  had  our  educational    review  or  quarterly.     V, 
!  turn  for  the  able  papers  and  lectures  of  the  times,  written  upo  nth 

,   no  regular  contributions  from  some  \<- 

•\ns  a  congenial  pursuit,  and  evincing  sound  and  discriminating  \ 
uce. — Providence  Post. 

This  magazine,  devoted  to  the  cause  of  education,  in  its  highest  and   most  complet 
tdited  a.nl  published  by  HENRY  BARNARD,  Hartford,  Conn.,  and,  apart  from  tl 
fence  of  its  accomplished  editor,  lays  under  tribute  many  of  the  richest  and  pro 

age.     There  is  riodical  io  this  country,  an  L''luaJ  ° 

approach  it  in  point  of  philosophic  vigor  and  fullness.—  Louisville,  (Ky.,)  Journal. 

It  is  decidedly,  and  in  every  respect,  the  best  educational  journal  ever  ]  he  United  States 

i  in  the  educational  progress  of  the  country  should  liuvt :  it.— XpnngUclcl,  (Mass., 

! 


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